Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease

759-764

Authors: Method Kazaura, Kristina Lugangira, Festus Kalokola

Objective: To determine prescription practices for non-malarial fever cases among febrile under-fives in the Lake Zone of Tanzania. Methods: A health facility-based study was conducted in health facilities of the Lake Zone regions targeting 1 080 medical records. From patients’ medical records, we collected information on how non-malarial fever was managed. Statistical analyses involved descriptive statistics and comparisons of proportions of prescribing medications between clinicians working in health facilities supported by Tibu Homa Project against others. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess independent variables associated with irregular prescription of antimalarials to non-malarial fever cases. Results: The main clinical diagnoses among febrile under-fives tested negative for malaria were respiratory tract infections (17%), pneumonia (15%) and urinary tract infections (10%). Over-prescription of antimalarial was to 12% (95%, confidence interval: 10%–14%) and only 14% (95%, confidence interval: 12%–16%) under-fives were correctly prescribed antibiotics based on correct final diagnosis. Health care providers from non-Tibu Homa Project supported health facilities, those working in hospitals and inpatient febrile under-fives were independent predictors of prescribing anti-malarial drugs to febrile under-fives with no malaria. Conclusions: The proportion of clinicians prescribing antimalarial medications and overprescribing antibiotics to malaria negative-tested under-fives in the Lake Zone is high, 11%, and as low as 14% of clinicians prescribed antibiotics correctly based on correct final diagnoses. Training of health care workers, health managers and regular supportive supervision may significantly improve prescription practices among clinicians attending under-fives.

770-775

Authors: Godwin Kwakye-Nuako, Johnson Nyarko Boampong, Mark Kweku Dong, Dorcas Obiri-Yeboah, Yeboah Kwaku Opoku, Daniel Amoako- Sakyi, Kwame Kumi Asare

Objective: To investigate the role CD4+ levels play in controlling diarrhea conditions caused by intestinal coccidian infections among HIV/AIDS infected individuals visiting Tarkwa Municipal Hospital. Methods: Fifty HIV/AIDS infected subjects with diarrhea conditions were enrolled into the study. Stool and blood samples were collected from each in two or three consecutive times to examine intestinal coccidian and microsporidian infections using microscopy and also estimate CD4+ cells using BD FACSCount TM. Results: Fourteen of the participants had intestinal coccidian or microsporidian representing 28% while 72% of the participants had diarrhea of unknown origin. Cryptosporidium recorded the highest prevalence of 42.86% whilst Cyclospora and Microsporidia equally recorded a prevalence of 28.57%. A significant protection against cryptosporidiosis was observed for CD4+ count above 200 cells/μL (χ2 = 6.522, P = 0.038), but not cyclosporiasis (P = 0.233) or microsporidiosis (P = 0.060). Conclusions: This study has shown that CD4+ cells above 200 cell/μL of blood protect HIVinfected patients from cryptosporidiosis. Standardization of the association between CD4+ cells and diarrhea condition caused by Cryptosporidium species is therefore suggested to serve as an indicator for prompt diagnosis and treatment of HIV-infected individuals with cryptosporidiosis.

778-782

Authors: Watcharapong Ruankham, Phatcharin Winyangkul, Nophawan Bunchu

Objective: To survey the prevalence of head lice infestation among primary school students in Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand from November 2015 to February 2016 and to investigate factors involving these infestations. Methods: A total of 703 students were checked for head lice infestations. The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics i.e. frequencies, percentages and correlations [odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI)]. Results: The overall percentage of head lice infestations was 15.1%. No infestation was found in boy students. The prevalence of head lice infestation was significantly associated with itching on a scalp (OR = 5.206, 95% CI = 3.116–8.696), having dirty fingernails (OR = 2.019, 95% CI = 1.217–3.352), wearing dirty clothes (OR = 4.532, 95% CI = 1.651–12.438), having history of head lice infestations (OR = 3.998, 95% CI = 2.174–7.356) and family member having history of head lice infestations (OR = 1.997, 95% CI = 1.092–3.651). Conclusions: Pediculosis capitis is still public health problem in this region. Effective treatment is required to control this infestation in urgent.

787-792

Authors: Leila Tajedin, Hasan Bakhshi, Faezeh Faghihi, Zakkyeh Telmadarraiy

Objective: To ascertain the prevalence of the Anaplasma/Ehrlichia infections in tick population within four provinces of Iran. Methods: A total of 384 tick specimens were collected from domestic animals inhabiting in four provinces (East Azerbaijan, Gilan, South Khorasan and Yazd). Specimens were identified based on morphological analysis. The detection of Anaplasma spp./Ehrlichia spp. within tick samples was carried out by nested PCR amplification of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene accompanied by DNA sequencing and analysis for verification. Results: A total of 10 tick species were identified as follows: Ornithodoros lahorensis (O. lahorensis) (44.8%), Hyalomma dromedarii (15.6%), Dermacentor marginatus (13.5%), Hyalomma anatolicum (11.2%), Hyalomma asiaticum (5.7%), Hyalomma marginatum (4.9%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (2.3%), Hyalomma detritum (1.0%), Dermacentor niveus (0.5%) and Argas persicus (0.3%). The percentage distribution of Anaplasma/Ehrlichia was 55.5% (213) across 384 studied ticks. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Anaplasma ovis infection in O. lahorensis in Iran. We also conjecture the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. in Yazd Province based on sequencing results; also, it is suggested that O. lahorensis is a potential vector in the studied area. This survey highlights the importance of Argasidae family to verify and correlate their threat in causing anaplasmosis and other diseases in animals.

797-801

Authors: Nagwa Mostafa El-Sayed, Shereen Magdy Kishik, Rasha Mohamed Fawzy

Objective: To ascertain a relationship between Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disease among Egyptian patients. Methods: One hundred RA patients and 50 healthy subjects participated in this study. The patients were classified into three groups, namely GI, G2 and G3. Patients in G1 were recently diagnosed with RA with the disease duration of less than one year (prior treatment); G2 included RA patients receiving anti-tumor necrosis factor agents and RA patients in G3 received disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (methotrexate, antimalarial, corticosteroids). Serum samples of all participants were examined for the presence of anti-Toxoplasma immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies and positive samples were further analyzed for anti- Toxoplasma IgM antibodies to detect the possibility of reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis. Also, the association between Toxoplasma seropositivity and clinical, laboratory and radiological features of these patients were determined. Results: There was a significantly higher percentage of T. gondii IgG positivity in RA patients (54%) than in the controls (32%). At the same time, 20.40% of T. gondii IgG positive patients had anti-T. gondii IgM antibodies with a statistically significant difference as comparing to T. gondii IgG positive controls. Out of T. gondii seropositive patients, 20.37% had a lower IgG level with a mean titer of (65.3 ± 17.7) IU/mL, 46.29% had moderate level with a mean titer of (184.2 ± 60.0) IU/mL and 33.33% had higher level with a mean titer of (404.3 ± 50.0) IU/ mL. A positive correlation was found between disease activity and Toxoplasma seropositivity. T. gondii seropositive RA patients had longer disease duration, longer time morning stiffness, higher numbers of tender and swollen joints and also increase in disease severity markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, disease activity score 28, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide anti-bodies, rheumatoid factor) than T. gondii seronegative patients. As regards radiological findings, Larsen score was found significantly higher in T. gondii seropositive RA patients. Conclusions: The positive correlation between T. gondii infection and RA disease among Egyptian patients indicated the need to improve awareness of this parasitic infection and its management in this risk group.

807-810

Authors: Debasish Kar, Samiran Bandyopadhyay, Umesh Dimri, Deba Brata Mondal, Pramod Kumar Nanda, Arun Kumar Das, Subhasish Batabyal, Premanshu Dandapat, Subhasish Bandyopadhyay

Objective: To evaluate the antibacterial property of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and capsaicin against multidrug resistant (MDR) and extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli of bovine and poultry origin. Methods: Antibacterial efficacy of AgNPs and capsaicin was measured using broth dilution method. Five MDR-ESBL producing E. coli isolates of poultry (PEC4, PEC6, PEC15 and PEC16) and cattle mastitis origin (MEC2) were taken to evaluate the antibacterial effect of AgNPs and capsaicin. Results: At 50 mmol/L AgNPs, the viability of MDR of bacterial pathogens was reduced to almost 80%–90% and at 1000 mmol/L, the viability went down to 0%–3%. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC50) of AgNPs against these MDR-ESBL producing isolates was found to vary between 172–218 mmol/L whereas the MIC80 varied between 450–640 mmol/L. Capsaicin showed more prominent bactericidal effect and only at 2.5 mmol/L concentration, the viability was shown to be reduced by 20%–35% whereas at 7.5 mmol/L concentration, there was approximately 60% reduction in viability. Further at 25 mmol/L concentration, the viability was reduced to 0%–8%. The MIC50 and MIC80 of capsaicin against these MDRESBL producing isolates were found to vary between 4.6–7.5 mmol/L and 10.9–16.9 mmol/L, respectively. Conclusions: The results point out that capsaicin and AgNPs could be of use in treating ESBL infection.

816-818

Authors: Mohammed Abubaker Altayeb, Shamsaldin Ibrahim Mokhtar, Mona Eltahir Adam, Salahaldeen Isamail Mohammed, Hassan Hussein Musa

Objective: To diagnose primary cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in pregnant women by determining CMV immunoglobulin G (IgG) avidity index. Methods: Ninety pregnant women with an average age of 23 years were studied. Their demographic data were obtained along with blood samples. The anti-CMV immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies were determined on fully automated immuoanalyzer, while the CMV IgG avidity testing was carried out using avidity ELISA assay. Results: Among the pregnant women, 15.6% were in the first trimester, 30.0% in the second, and 54.4% in the third trimesters. Besides, 40.0% had chronic disease, while the other 60.0% did not. Anti-CMV IgM antibodies and CMV IgG avidity test showed that 1.1% of the pregnant women were CMV IgM positive and 98.9% were CMV IgG positive, respectively. The avidity test revealed the presence of low avidity of CMV IgG antibodies in 1.1% cases while 98.9% cases exhibited high avidity of CMV IgG antibodies. Conclusions: CMV IgG avidity test was important to distinguish between CMV recent and past infection rather than relying on IgG and IgM only, and IgM is not always indicative for recent or primary CMV infection.

822-826

Authors: Bouabedelli Fatma, Missoun Fatiha, Benhamimed El attafia, Djebli Noureddine

Objective: To investigate the antibacterial effect of Peganum harmala (P. harmala) extracts against urinary tract infection pathogens isolated from infected patients. Methods: Agar diffusion technique was used for detecting the antibacterial activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration was tested by serial dilution methods. Alkaloids extract of seeds was fractioned using thin layer chromatography. Results: Phytochemical screening in the leaves of P. harmala showed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids and steroids and the absence of anthraquinons, whereas the results in the seeds showed the absence of flavonoids and the presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, anthraquinons, terpenoids and steroids. The results of thin layer chromatography revealed that the alkaloids profiles of the seeds extracts of P. harmala are different. The major alkaloids detected and quantified from the intensity of their fluorescence were harmine, harmaline, harmalol and harmol. The methanolic extract of the plant was effective against the four microorganism tested. It was observed that the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of flavonoids extracted from the leaves and seeds of P. harmala were bactericidal to Staphylococcus aureus. Conclusions: Results of this study suggest that the flavonoids extract of P. harmala may be useful to treat uropathogenic bacteria.

832-836

Authors: Mai Mohammed Farid, Sameh Reda Hussein, Mahmoud Mohammed Saker

Scientists continue to search for and conserve plants whose medicinal properties have become crucial in the fight against diseases. Moreover, lessons from folk medicine, indigenous knowledge and Chinese medicine on crude extracts points to possible findings of novel promising and strong pharmaceutically bioactive constituents. Arum palaestinum, commonly known as black calla lily, is one of the most important medicinal plants belonging to the family Araceae, which has not been well studied. Little is known about its pharmaceutically bioactive constituents and the effective conservation through the use of biotechnology. Thus, Arum Palaestinum is selected and reviewed for its phytochemical analysis and biological activities. Besides, the tissue culture and genetic characterization developed for effective conservation of the plant were also summarized.

680-684

Authors: Alexey Anatolievich Rudko, Elena Yurievna Bragina, Valery Pavlovich Puzyrev, Maxim Borisovich Freidin

Tuberculosis is a global pressing healthcare issue in the modern world. Host genetics is an important modifier of the disease risk. Genetic and genomic studies aim to reveal key inherited variants of the human genome associated with the susceptibility to tuberculosis. Much attention is given to the study of differential genetic susceptibility to various stages of tuberculous infection, particularly latent tuberculosis, the detection of which is most challenging. Susceptibility genes have been identified and most of which exhibit a relatively small effect on the disease risk. On the other hand, a proportion of children suffer from Mendelian susceptibility to tuberculosis associated with rare mutations with deterministic effect in genes for the components of cellular immunity against intra-cellular infections. This review focuses on the current achievements in genomic studies devoted to the identification of genes important for the implementation of the immune response and protection against the development of the infection in different populations in the world.

691-694

Authors: Seble Worku Kebede, Dosegnaw Argaw Beyene, Abebe Getnet Meshesha, Mulusew Alemneh Sinishaw

Objective: To assess the prevalence of hookworm infections and anemia and also measure their association among children. Methods: A cross-sectional parasitological and hematological study was conducted on 130 children at Jimma Health Center, Jimma, Southwest Ethiopia. Stool samples were collected and processed for direct microscopic examination. Blood samples were examined by using hematocrit to determine the hemoglobin level. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire from every study participant. Results: The overall prevalence of hookworm infection and anemia was found to be 18 (13.48%) and 43 (33.07%), respectively. Anemia prevalences were 66.67% (12/18) among hookworm infected children and 33.07% (43/130) among all study participants. Hookworm had a statistically significant association with anemia and predisposing factors such as shoes wearing habits and methods of excreta disposal (P < 0.05). Conclusions: Prevalences of hookworm infection and anemia were low among children. But the prevalence of anemia as compared to hookworm was too high. Attention should be given to contributing factors accordingly to reduce hookworm infection and anemia.

699-708

Authors: Biplab Mandal, Indranil Bhattacharjee, Debasish Mondal, Jayanta Kumar Kundu, Goutam Chandra

Objective: To assess the prevalence of disease and microfilaremia in four slums of Bankura, West Bengal, India. Methods: Data on age and sex-specific of all the respondents were collected and compared with microfilaria rate and density (20 mm3 blood was collected by finger prick) to examine the relationship between the dynamics of Wuchereria bancrofti. Screening of the population for the main signs and symptoms of lymphatic filariasis (LF) in both sexes and hydrocele in men, was performed in a health facility setting (health center/health post) by physicians/trained nurses. Disease rate and endemicity rate were also calculated. Aspects related to vectors were also studied by regular collection and dissection of mosquitoes. Results: Microfilaria rate, mean microfilarial density, disease rate and endemicity rate were 5.04%, 7.03%, 13.83% and 18.37%, respectively. Causative parasite was identified as Wuchereria bancrofti and Culex quinquefasciatus was recorded as vector. Per man hour density, infection and infectivity rates of the vector Culex quinquefasciatus were found to be 14.12%, 5.98% and 0.87%, respectively. Conclusions: Using these baseline data would be useful in planning for the elimination of LF in slums of Bankura, West Bengal, India as per World Health Organization goal to eliminate LF by 2020.

714-717

Authors: Parvane Jalali, Afagh Moattari, Ali Mohammadi, Nima Ghazanfari, Gholamhosein Pourghanbari

Objective: To evaluate the antiviral activity of Melissa officinalis (MO) extract against the influenza virus H1N1 in vitro. Methods: The cytotoxicity of MO extract was identified on Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell culture by MTT assay. The virus was inoculated to the cells (multiplicity of infection = 0.1) in two protocols. In protocol 1, the MO extracts at concentrations of 0.005, 0.050, 0.010, 0.100 and 0.500 mg/mL were incubated with the virus for one hour preinoculation. In protocol 2, the mentioned concentrations of MO extracts were added to the cells one-hour post infection. Furthermore, the antiviral effect of oseltamivir with different concentrations was tested as the positive controls. The 50% tissue culture infective dose, neutralizing index and hemagglutination titer were determined. Results: The medicine oseltamivir and MO extracts were not toxic for MDCK at concentrations less than 1 mg/mL. All utilized concentrations of MO extracts were vigorously efficient to decrease the viral yield in both experiments. The 50% tissue culture infective dose of the groups containing up to 0.100 mg/mL of MO extracts in the first experiment in compare with 0.050 mg/mL in the second experiment reduced to 0. Although hemagglutination tests showed little titers, the viral quantity significantly decreased in both experiments. By the way, the medicine oseltamivir could completely suppress viral replication in MDCK. Conclusions: The present study suggests that MO extracts have a potent anti-influenza effect in cell culture.

722-725

Authors: Luanna Munhoz Zabaglia, Marina Saes Rays, Roger Willian de Labio, Agostinho Caleman Neto, Spencer Luiz Marques Payão, Lucas Trevizani Rasmussen

Objective: To investigate an association between the interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-511 T>C (rs16944), -31 C>T (rs1143627), and/or interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) polymorphisms and gastritis and then to correlate any associations with the presence of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), cagA and vacA genes. Methods: Gastric biopsies were obtained from 377 children with gastric symptoms including 152 males and 225 females aging from 1–15 years with the mean age of (9.41 ± 4.29) years. To characterize the -511 T>C, -31 C>T, and IL-1RA polymorphisms, the PCR-RFLP and PCRVNTR methods were used. PCR was also used for the diagnosis of H. pylori and to determine whether cagA and vacA genes were present. Results: The histopathological analysis revealed 206 patients (54.6%) with gastritis and 171 patients (45.4%) with normal gastric tissue. Subjects carrying the -511 T/T genotype were associated with a risk of gastritis (odds ratio (OR) = 2.75, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.45– 5.18, P = 0.0035). Similar results were found in subjects carrying -31 C/C (OR = 2.27, 95% CI 1.13–4.54, P = 0.0440). However, the IL-1RA polymorphism did not seem to be associated with gastric disease (OR = 1.38, 95% CI 0.58–3.26, P = 0.2400). Conclusions: This data suggests that IL-1β gene cluster polymorphisms and, more specifically, interactions between these polymorphisms and H. pylori may be predictors of gastritis risks, which possibly play a relevant role in the susceptibility to or the development of gastric disease early in life.

732-735

Authors: Masteria Yunovilsa Putra, Tri Aryono Hadi, Tutik Murniasih

Objective: To evaluate antimicrobial activities in methanolic extracts of twelve sponges collected from the Anambas Islands, Indonesia. Methods: The antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts was tested against two Grampositive bacteria, viz. Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 6633) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), and two Gram-negative bacteria, viz. Eschericia coli (ATCC 25922) and Vibrio anguillarum (ATCC 19264) using the disk diffusion assay. The antifungal activity was similarly tested against Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) and Aspergillus niger (ATCC 16404). The minimum inhibitory concentrations of promising sponges extracts were determined by the microdilution technique. Results: All the sponge species in this study showed antimicrobial activities against at least one of the test strains. Antibacterial activities were observed in 66.7% of the sponges extracts, while 30.0% of the extracts exhibited antifungal activities. Among them, the extracts of the sponges Stylissa massa and Axinyssa sp. were the most active against four tested bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans. The sponge Theonella swinhoei and two species of Xestospongia also displayed significant activities against two fungal pathogens Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Conclusions: Antimicrobial activities were demonstrated in extracts from various marine sponges collected from the Anambas Islands, Indonesia. The most promising sponges among them were Stylissa massa and Axinyssa sp. This is the first report of antimicrobial activity in extracts of marine sponges from the Indonesian Anambas Islands.

741-745

Authors: Ravichandran Ramanibai, Ezhumalai Parthiban, Madakannu Boothapandi

Objective: To evaluate the toxicity of Annona squamosa (A. squamosa) aqueous (physiological saline) seed soluble extract and its control of mosquito population. Methods: Ovicidal, larvicidal and pupicidal activity of A. squamosa crude soluble seed kernel extract was determined according to World Health Organization. The mortality of each mosquito stage was recorded after 24 h exposured to plant material. Toxicity assay was used to assess the non-target organisms with different concentrations according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Results: The aqueous solubilized extracts of A. squamosa elicit the toxicity against all stages of Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus, and the LC50 values against stages of egg, 1st-4th larvae were (1.45 and 1.26–2.5 mg/mL), (1.12 and 1.19–2.81 mg/ mL) and (1.80 and 2.12–3.41 mg/mL) respectively. The pupicidal activity also brought forth amended activity against all three mosquitoes species, and the LC50 values were consider to be 3.19, 2.42 and 4.47 mg/mL. Ultimately there was no mortality observed from non-target organism of Chironomus costatus. Conclusions: Based on the findings of the study, it suggests that the use of A. squamosa plant extract can act as an alternate insecticidal agents for controlling target mosquitoes without affecting the non-target aquatic insect. Further investigation to identify the active compounds and their mechanisms of action is recommended.

749-756

Authors: Najeeb Ullah, Kinza Hafeez, Samia Farooq, Amna Batool, Noreen Aslam, Marzia Hussain, Sohail Ahmad

Diabetes and obesity are chief health crisis and mainly age-related metabolic disorders. Diabetes is the main cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Obesity is linked with the progression of diabetes mellitus. High levels of glycerol, fatty acids, enzymes, proinflammatory markers and other obese entities build up insulin resistance in obese persons. The pathology of diabetes involves the dysfunction of β-islet cells of pancreas leading to deficient management of blood glucose level. This study demonstrates the anti-diabetic and anti-obesity effect of plant derived chemicals, some agonists, nutraceuticals, pharmaceutical drugs, some proteins and other compounds from 1998 to 2015. Plant derived from chemicals and other compounds were concluded to control diabetes and obesity by increasing number of glucose transporters, β-islet cells of pancreas, and lipid metabolism enzymes. In this way, the impairment of β-islet cells of pancreas is restored and the serum cholesterol and glucose levels of individuals are lowered. Further approaches are also needed to handle and cure diabetes and obesity.

596-602

Authors: Walter Chingwaru, Jerneja Vidmar

Objective: To present a comprehensive protocol for the processing of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infected samples and propagation of the virus in primary cell cultures. Methods: Hepatitis E was extracted from porcine liver and faecal samples following standard protocols. The virus was then allowed to attach in the presence of trypsin to primary cells that included porcine and bovine intestinal epithelial cells and macrophages over a period of up to 3 h. The virus was propagated by rotational passaging through the cell cultures. Propagation was confirmed by immunoblotting. Results: We developed a comprehensive protocol to propagate HEV in porcine cell model that includes (i) rotational culturing of the virus between porcine cell types, (ii) pre-incubation of infected cells for 210 min, (iii) use of a semi-complete cell culture medium supplemented with trypsin (0.33 μg/mL) and (iv) the use of simple immunoblot technique to detect the amplified virus based on the open reading frame 2/3. Conclusions: This protocol opens doors towards systematic analysis of the mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of HEV in vitro. Using our protocol, one can complete the propagation process within 6 to 9 d.

608-610

Authors: Naeem Bukhari, Afshan Saleem, Abdul Jabbar, Sadiq Noor Khan, Bilal Ahmad, Nasir Habib, Abdul Haseeb, Azhar Khan, Muhammad Zahid Ali, Mohammad Adeeb khan, Aftab Ahmad Khan

Objective: To analyse seropositivity rates of salmonella with seasonal variations in the population of Taxila and the surrounding rural areas. Methods: The study was conducted among 760 suspected patients with symptoms of fever, headache, nausea and decreased white blood cells count screened for the typhoid fever. Blood samples collected from the suspected patients were tested for seropositivity by slide agglutination (Widal test) and Immunochromatographic test, i.e. Typhidot. Results: From overall 760 suspected patients of typhoid fever only 192 (25.26%) samples were positive for Widal and Typhidot test. The peak seropositivity rates were identified during the months of April–June, while decreased cases were observed from January to March. Age wise distribution of typhoid fever reflected that age groups of 10–15 years and 25–35 years were at higher risks of developing enteric fever with respect to age groups of 5–10 years and 61–70 years, respectively. On gender basis evaluation, females (24.49%) were slightly at low risks of developing typhoid fever than males (25.9%). Conclusions: The present study highlights a higher burden of typhoid fever in Taxila and the surrounding areas population that directly reflects the poor hygienic condition and contamination of drinking water. The frequency of typhoid fever fluctuates with seasonal variations as higher rates found during the summer as compared to winter season.

615-621

Authors: Bamidele Akinsanya, Minasu Pentho Kuton

Objective: To study the bioaccumulation of heavy metals from Synodontis clarias (S. clarias) and Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (C. nigrodigitatus) with their parasitic fauna. Methods: A total of 50 specimens of each fish species (n = 100) were examined. The fishes were subjected to parasitological investigation while 3 g of intestinal tissue of S. clarias and C. nigrodigitatus samples were digested with nitric acid (10 mL). The tissues were then heated until brown fumes disappeared. The samples were allowed to cool and distilled water was added to make up to 50 mL in a standard flask. The filtrate was examined using the atomic absorption spectrometer. The fish hosts were weighed and measured with the aid of digital weighing balance and measuring board, respectively. Results: The Chi-square distribution was significant at 0.01 level (χ2 = 2.16, P < 0.01). A nematode of the family Camallanidae (Procamallanus spp.) was found in S. clarias and a trematode (Siphodera ghanensis) was found in C. nigrodigitatus. The total lengths of C. nigrodigitatus in females and males were (15.05 ± 3.27) cm and (20.35 ± 4.20) cm (P < 0.01), respectively. Also the total lengths of S. clarias in females and males were (21.07 ± 2.80) cm and (20.76 ± 2.37) cm (P < 0.01), respectively. The mean value for the condition factor of both S. clarias and C. nigrodigitatus were more than 2.0. The concentrations of the trace elements in the fishes were Pb > Zn > Mn > Fe > Cd (not detected) and Mn > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cd (not detected), respectively, while in the nematode, Procamallanus spp. and trematode, Siphodera spp. were Pb > Mn > Fe > Zn > Cd and Mn > Fe > Zn > Pb > Cd, respectively. In the water and sediment, the distribution of heavy metals were Fe > Mn > Zn > Pb > Cd and Fe > Mn > Pb > Zn > Cd, respectively. Conclusions: The findings of the concentrations of the trace elements in the aquatic habitat as well as the sediment were below the permissible limit of Federal Ministry of Environment. These findings confirmed that the aquatic habitat was adequate for fishing activity and that the consumption of fish species therein are safe. However, it should be noted that there was bioaccumulation of trace elements in the fish tissues which should not pose any danger to man. Therefore, a regular monitoring of the levels of trace elements in the water body as well as in the fauna should be regularly undertaken.

627-630

Authors: Chukwuebuka Iniobong Ikenna Ugochukwu, Nebolisah Omekam, Emmanuel Ikenna Ugochukwu

Objective: To determine the incidence of Dirofilaria immitis (D. immitis) in dogs using the wet mount and buffy coat techniques for rapid detection of microfilaria in blood samples collected from dogs, to compare the two techniques for quick detection, to find if there is age susceptibility in the incidence of dirofilariasis in dogs presented at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Nigeria, Nsukka and to find out if there are breed and sex variations in the incidence of dirofilariasis in dogs presented at Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Methods: Blood samples were collected from the cephalic vein of 119 dogs. The blood samples were aseptically collected via cephalic venepuncture of each dog, collected into a tube containing ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid as anticoagulant, stored in an ice pack box at 5 °C and processed and examined for microfilaria using wet mount and buffy coat techniques. Results: A total of 4 dogs were positive for D. immitis microfilaria giving a prevalence of 3.36%, more male (4.83%) than female (1.75%) dogs were affected in this study. Although there was no significant difference between both groups, the prevalence was the highest in cross breeds (6.66%), moderate in local breeds (3.63%) and absent in exotic breeds (0.00%). Although there was no significant (P < 0.05) difference amongst the 3 groups, only adult dogs were found positive for D. immitis microfilaria. Conclusions: Based on the results of this present study, both the wet mount and buffy coat techniques can be used at the discretion of the clinician and in the absence of modified Knott’s filter test, ELISA test and other diagnostic imaging techniques, in the rapid detection of microfilaria in blood samples from suspected cases of dirofilariasis.

633-637

Authors: Mona Mohamed Marzouk, Sameh Reda Hussein, Ahmed Elkhateeb, Mai Mohamed Farid, Lamyaa Fawzy Ibrahim, El-Sayed Saleh Abdel- Hameed

Objective: To investigate the phenolic profile of Rorippa palustris (R. palustris) compared to Egyptian Rorippa species to evaluate their chemosystematic significance as well as screen cytotoxicity of R. palustris extract. Methods: The chemical components of defatted hydroalcoholic R. palustris extract were analyzed using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry technique. The cytotoxic activity was evaluated by using MTT assay against four carcinoma cell lines. Results: Sixteen compounds corresponding to flavonoids (kaempferol and quercetin derivatives), phenolic acids (gallic, coumaric and ferulic acids derivatives) and an anthocyanin (delphinine derivative) were identified or tentatively characterized, of which ten compounds were detected for the first time from R. palustris. Moreover, R. palustris extract showed a moderate activity against MCF7 and A549 cell lines at 100 mg/mL with cell viability of 47.3% and 65.4%, respectively. Conclusions: The phenolic profile and the morphological characters of R. paluatris seem to be in relation with those of Rorippa indica, which can be considered as an indicative parameter for its medicinal importance.

642-649

Authors: Engwa Azeh Godwill, Marcellus Unaegbu, Aniakor Uchenna Esther, Osuji Amarachukwu Gloria, Agbafor Nwonu Kingsley, Olayinka Ayobami Aiyegoro, Okoh Anthony

Objective: To investigate the antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of the seed and leaf extracts of Chrysophyllum albidum (C. albidum). Methods: After assessing the in vitro ferric reducing power and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activities as well as the flavonoid and flavanol contents, the seed and leaf extracts were administered to diabetic rats for 7 days. The animals were sacrificed and serum was obtained for the determination of blood glucose level while liver sample was used for the quantification of glycogen level as well as lipidic peroxidation and catalase activity. Results: Seed and leaf extracts of C. albidum showed ferric reducing activity and very high hydrogen peroxide scavenging potential. After the administration of treatment in diabetic rats, there was a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in blood sugar level and a significant increase (P < 0.05) in liver glycogen level in Groups 3 and 4 animals administered the leaf and seed extracts respectively compared to Group 1 (the negative control). Also, catalase activity and malondialdehyde levels increased in Groups 3 and 4 administered the extracts compared to Group 1 animals (the negative control). Flavonoids and flavanol were present and significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the leaf than seed extract. In all, the leaf extract showed the greatest activities. Conclusions: These results suggest that the leaf and seed extracts of C. albidum possess both in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities in scavenging free radicals as well as antidiabetic activity, and as such, a potentially important compound in antidiabetic drug discovery.

654-655

Authors: Udit Chauhan, Neeraj Jain, Sunil Kumar Puri, Lalit Garg, Monika Singh

Bacterial infections of the biliary tree are common infections of the biliary system which frequently lead to life-threatening sepsis. Parasitic infections of the biliary tree like ascariasis are not uncommon. Most adult worms reside into the extrahepatic biliary system. Intrahepatic existence is not commonly described. Urgent recognition of the intrahepatic existence of this common parasite is of paramount importance in order to start timely treatment of this lifethreatening infection. Authors described a case of intrahepatic ascariasis in a young male who was diagnosed radiologically and thereafter managed with endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and antibiotics.

660-667

Authors: Najeeb Ullah, Abida Parveen, Rahat Bano, Iqra Zulfiqar, Mukharma Maryam, Sadia Jabeen, Amna Liaqat, Sohail Ahmad

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing against pathogenic microorganisms is the most significant task of clinical microbiology laboratory. The present study was therefore designed to review the in vitro and in vivo protocols of antimicrobial bioassays of various medicinal herbal extracts against a diversity of pathogenic microorganisms. Plants have a broad variety of antimicrobial agents which are extensively used as herbal drugs against different microbes. The review covers the antimicrobial techniques and antimicrobial bioassays of medicinal herbal extracts against different bacterial and fungal strains from 2000 onward. Plants have diverse concentrations of bioactive constituents such as alkaloids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. These phytochemicals are used against an extensive range of bacteria (Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium pervum, Bordetella pertusis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi), viruses (simian-virus, retrovirus) and fungi (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium solani). A variety of antibiotics (tetracycline, terramycin, ampicillin) has also been isolated from different medicinal plants. This review was therefore intended to explore the techniques used for antimicrobial activities of herbal medicinal extracts.

509-512

Authors: Ahmed Abdulkarim Ibrahim, Musa Ahmed Mohamed, Babiker Ahmed Babiker, Mohamed Bashir Musa, Hassan Hussein Musa

Objective: To detect serological markers [immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies] of Epstein-Barr virus in renal transplant recipients in Sudan. Methods: A cross sectional study was designed to detect serological markers of Epstein-Barr virus from 152 renal transplant recipients using ELISA. Results: The results showed that the percentage of renal transplant patients was increased with age, 71.05% of the patients were males, and 56.57% were liveing in cities. The most transplant patients were employee (28.95%) and were housewife (26.32%). The numbers of renal transplant patients were increased every year, and 85.53% of the patients had transplantation in Sudan and 14.47% of patients had transplantation in other countries. Diseases associated with renal transplant patient were hypertension 18.42%, infectious diseases 7.24%, renal diseases 3.95%, atrophy 6.58%, gout 2.63% and other diseases 61.18%. Serological test indicated that among the 152 renal transplants recipient 143 (94%) were IgG positive indicating past infection, while 4 (3%) were IgM positive indicating active infection. Most IgG positive patients have hypertension and atrophy diseases, whereas, IgM positive patient have atrophy disease. IgM positive cases were administrated 75% prograf and 25% cyclosporine as an immunosuppressive drug. While IgG positive cases were administrated 83.92% prograf, 13.29% cyclosporine, and 2.79% prograf plus prednisolone as an immunosuppressive drug. Conclusions: Finally we concluded that most Sudanese renal transplants recipient studied were previously infected with Epstein-Barr virus, while few of them were recently infected.

517-520

Authors: Christianah Idowu Ayolabi

Objective: To describe the genetic diversity of rotavirus strains circulating in Lagos, Nigeria. Methods: A total of 302 stool samples were obtained from diarrheic children on admission to four hospitals in Lagos and screened for rotavirus antigen by enzyme immunoassay, while rotavirus VP4 and VP7 genotypes were determined by multiplex semi-nested RT-PCR using recognized primers and methods. Results: Overall, the globally important genotypes, G1, G2, G3, G4 and G9, associated with P[4], P[6] and P[8] were detected. A rotavirus carrying G12 specificity was also detected at low frequency. The different rotavirus strains found in this study were G[2]P[6], G[2]P[8], G[1] P[8], G[1]P[6], G[3]P[6], G[9]P[6], G[2]P[4], G[4]P[4], G[12]P[8] and some mixed infections. Conclusions: The study highlights the wide diversity of rotavirus strains and the potential emergence of unusual rotavirus in this region. It is therefore important to continue the epidemiological studies to monitor rotavirus strains associated with gastroenteritis in hospitals before and after the introduction of rotavirus vaccine.

527-532

Authors: Amina Ibrahim, Albert Wulari Mbaya, Maduka Boniface Anene, Joshua Luka

Objective: To compare parasitaemia and haematological changes of Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection in mice, rats and rabbits and their chemotherapeutic responses to diminazene diaceturate (Veriben®) therapy under the same experimental conditions. Methods: A total of 20 adult BALB/c mice, 20 Wister albino rats and 20 New Zealand rabbits of both sexes were used for this study. Each rodent group was divided into four groups (A, B, C and D) of five animals each. Animals in Groups A and C were individually infected with 0.5 mL of blood from donor rats containing 1.5 × 106 Trypanosoma brucei brucei, while Groups B and D remained uninfected. Experimental animals were treated thus [Group A (infected and untreated control), Group B (uninfected and untreated control), Group C (infected and treated) and Group D (uninfected and treated)]. All treatments commenced 12 days after infection. Parasitaemia and haematological parameters were determined every four days till the end of the experiment. Results: The prepatent period for mice and rats was 4 days while that of rabbits was 8 days. Observed clinical signs consisted of pallor of mucous membranes, lethargy and starry hair coat observed mainly among mice and rats, while the rabbits had mainly mild pallor of the ocular mucous membranes. Parasitaemia in Groups A rose significantly by Day 20 post-infection (p.i.) in the mice, Day 24 in the rats and Day 28 in rabbits. By these respective days, all the infected untreated animals in Group A died of the infection. However in Group C, parasitaemia declined significantly (P < 0.05) among mice, rats and rabbits and were completely eliminated from peripheral circulation by Days 20, 20 and 24 (p.i.) respectively, with no death. An inverse relationship was observed between parasitaemia and the haematological parameters for all the species of the rodents. As parasitaemia increased, the packed cell volume, red blood cell count, haemoglobin concentrations and white blood cell counts of mice, rats and the rabbits experienced a significant decline (P < 0.05) in Group A, leading to anaemia. These decline in haematological parameters were however the most severe in rats and mice than in rabbits. Conclusions: Mice and rats are better animal models for studying the progression of the disease than rabbits and diminazene diaceturate (Veriben®) is capable of eliminating parasitaemia and modulating haematological changes in mice, rats and rabbits.

539-548

Authors: Ezzat El-Sayed Abdel-Lateef, Olfat Ali Hammam, Faten Salah Mahmoud, Shimaa Attia Atta, Mortada Mohamed El-Sayed, Hanaa Ismail Hassenein

Objective: To evaluate the cytotoxic activity and cytopathological changes of Vitex agnuscastus L. (V. agnus-castus) leaves extracts and characterize their bioactive chemical constituents. Methods: The dried leaves powder of V. agnus-castus was extracted using 85% methanol (MeOH). The methanolic extract was defatted using petroleum ether and fractionated using ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and butanol (BuOH). The anticancer potential of different extracts was evaluated by neutral red assay, cytopathological changes of apoptosis and caspase-3 expression in hepatoma cell line (HepG2). The chemical constituents of most active extracts were identified using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry analysis. Results: The butanolic fraction was the most active in inhibiting the proliferation of HepG2 cells [IC50 = (13.42 ± 0.17) mg/mL] compared with MeOH extract [IC50 = (17.61 ± 0.15) mg/ mL) and EtOAc fraction [IC50= (22.51 ± 0.26) mg/mL]. The cytopathological examinations demonstrated the morphology of apoptosis and caspase-3 expression was more evident in HepG2 cells treated with BuOH than cells treated with MeOH and EtOAc. The liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry analysis exhibited that the defatted MeOH extract and BuOH fraction had different bioactive secondary metabolites, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and iridoids. Conclusions: The butanolic fraction has higher contents of secondary metabolites than the defatted methanolic extract. The cytotoxic activities, apoptotic changes, and caspase-3 activation may be due to the presence of these bioactive secondary metabolites (iridoids, flavonoid, and phenolic acids) in these extracts. These results would suggest V. agnus-castus to be used as an adjuvant in cancer therapy.

557-563

Authors: Cédric Sima Obiang, Joseph-Privat Ondo, Guy-Roger Ndong Atome, Louis-Clément Obame Engonga, Joel-Fleury Djoba Siawaya, Edouard Nsi Emvo

Objective: To evaluate the phytochemical constituents, antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of water-acetone, water-ethanol and water extracts of Coula edulis (C. edulis), Pseudospondia longifolia (P. longifolia) and Carapa klaineana (C. klaineana). Methods: Presence of total phenols, flavonoids, tannins and proanthocyanidins was evaluated to estimate the effects of plants on microbial diseases. Water-acetone, water-ethanol and water extracts were examined for antioxidant activities. All plant extracts were evaluated against six reference strains, eleven clinical isolates and two fungal strains. Results: The contents of total phenols [(12 857.56 ± 1.00) mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g], flavonoids [(1 634.13 ± 1.88) mg quercetin equivalent/100 g], tannins [(2 672.00 ± 1.59) mg tannic acid equivalent/100 g] and proanthocyanidins [(395.11 ± 0.83) mg apple procyanidin equivalent/100 g] were highest in the water-acetone and water-ethanol extracts from C. edulis in comparison with P. longifolia and C. klaineana. The water-acetone, water-ethanol and water extracts from C. edulis presented the highest antimicrobial activities against Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Enterococcus faecalis CIP 103907, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella sp. The tested microorganisms showed sensitivity to all extracts of P. longifolia and C. klaineana with the exception of Shigella dysenteriae CIP 5451, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi. Conclusions: Our results suggest that C. edulis extracts contain greater antioxidant and antimicrobial properties than P. longifolia and C. klaineana extracts.

567-572

Authors: Aamir Rana, Syed Sajjad Sattar, Afshann Shahzad, Ghulam Muhammad Ali, Yasir Waheed

Evidences have been increasingly provided to comfirm that lipid accumulation in cells contributes to the progression of pathogeneses. The receptor-mediated lipid uptake is the crucial step for lipid retention as scavenger receptors class-A (SR-A) is not controlled via negative feedback by cytoplasmic cholesterol and therefore it plays a fundamental role in the formation of foam cells. Along with participation in apoptosis, SR-A presents very deceitful characteristics to control immune responses during age-related degenerative pathologies such as atherosclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease. It is henceforth undeniable that targeted inhibition of these receptors will be helpful in getting a step closer to individualized medicine. This review unfolds current understanding of SR-A signaling with a focus on its role in apoptosis and immune regulation during different pathologies.

581-588

Authors: Arnish Chakraborty

Malaria is a life-threatening, highly infectious parasitic disease caused by the intracellular, protozoan parasites of Plasmodium species. The most severe form of the disease is caused by Plasmodium falciparum, an Apicomplexa parasite with a remarkable ability to acquire resistance to antimalarial medications. Drug resistant malaria is a serious public health concern in the tropical and sub-tropical nations of the world, rendering conventional antimalarial medication ineffective in several regions. Since an effective malaria vaccine is not yet available to the masses, novel antimalarial drugs need to be developed to control the disease on the face of ever increasing reports of drug resistance. The review acquaints the readers to the current situation of chemotherapy and drug resistance in malaria across the globe, the existing antimalarial medications in use, their mechanism of action and how the malaria parasite evolves resistance to them. The review also focuses on the identification, characterization and validation of a plethora of novel drug targets in Plasmodium falciparum from the oxidoreductase, hydrolase and protein kinase groups of enzymes. The work highlights the importance of these drug targets in Plasmodium biology and shines a spotlight on novel inhibitors which have the potential to be developed as future antimalarial drugs. The review ends with a detailed discussion on the prospects and challenges in antimalarial drug discovery.

424-428

Authors: Olarewaju Abdulkareem Babamale, Olalere Shittu, Yusuf Kanya Danladi, Jimoh Yemi Abdulraheem, Uade Samuel Ugbomoiko

Objective: To investigate the co-infection of malaria and intestinal helminths and its burden among the pregnant women in Kwara State, Nigeria. Methods: Blood and faecal samples of pregnant women were randomly examined using blood smear and Kato-Katz techniques, respectively. Micro-haematocrit reader was used to estimate packed cell volume (PCV) while information concerning pregnancy and transmission factors was obtained by questionnaire. Results: Out of the 300 pregnant women, 17.3% had at least one parasite infection and the specific rate of co-infection was 73.1%. Co-infection of Plasmodium falciparum and Ascaris lumbricoides decreased with increasing age while the concurrence of Plasmodium falciparum with hookworm increased with increasing age of women. It was observed that helminth infection protected the severity of malaria and aggravated anaemia level. Pregnant women with malaria alone had average parasitaemia of 1034.9 parasite/μL of blood and PCV of 30.24% while individuals co-infected with hookworms had parasitaemia of 859.67 parasite/μL and PCV of 26.98%. Our findings also indicated that the prevalence of infection in pregnancy varied with gestation periods. The highest prevalence was recorded in pregnant women in their primigravidae and first trimester. Inadequate toilet facilities, illiteracy, occupations, low incomes and proximities of vegetation around the habitation were observed to influence the transmission of multiple parasites. Conclusions: Mass drug administration and maintenance of personal and environmental hygiene are essential preventive measures in endemic communities to ward off the debilitating effects of parasites in pregnancy.

432-436

Authors: Mohammad Hossien Feiz Haddad, Khatereh Safaei, Azadeh Saki, Rezvan Feiz Haddad

Objective: To examine the prevalence process and epidemiological characteristics of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) during 2001–2011. Methods: This was a cross-sectional epidemiologic study examining 2637 patients with CL in Susangerd county during 2001–2011. The data of all patients who referred to the Prevention Unit of Susangerd Health Center were registered in CL epidemiologic data summary forms. The data and parameters included age, gender, occupation, season, residence (urban, rural), and lesion location. Results: Out of 2637 patients, 1174 cases (44.5%) were females and 1463 patients (55.5%) were males. The maximum rate of infection was recorded in under 10-year-old age group (45.32%) and its minimum rate was seen among those aged over 60 years (0.87%). Among them, 1 557 patients (59.0%) were living in urban and 1 080 (41.0%) were in rural areas. The maximum and minimum occupational frequency distributions were seen in students (49.9%) and farmers (0.6%), respectively. The study showed that the maximum and minimum frequencies were observed in winter (52.33%) and summer (7.62%) correspondingly. The most lesion frequencies from lesion location point of view were related to hands (37.5%), faces (30.0%), feet (26.3%) and other organs (6.2%) and the number of lesions ranged from 1–5 and sized varied from 0.5–5.5 cm Conclusions: Epidemiological parameters such as age, gender, occupation, season, residence (urban, rural) and lesion location in endemic regions have had significant effects on the prevalence of CL in Susangerd county and the findings can be effective for assessing disease prevention programs. In addition, CL might become a serious dermatological health problem in the near future due to a great population movement to the neighboring country Iraq with a high incidence to an endemic area.

443-446

Authors: Masoud Soltanialvar, Ali Bagherpour, Farshad Akbarnejad

The hemagglutinin (HA), the major envelope glycoprotein of influenza, plays an important role during the early stage of infection, and changes in the HA gene prior to the emergence of pathogenic avian influenza viruses. The HA protein controls viral entry through membrane fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane and allows the genetic information released to initiate new virus synthesis. Sharp antigenic variation of HA remains the critical challenge to the development of effective vaccines. Therefore, we highlight the role of HA in need of review: structure of HA, the fusion process and the HA receptor binding specificity in interspecies transmission and the impact of multiple mutations at antigenic sites and host antibodies to the parental virus, and the host susceptibility to productive infection by the drift strains.

449-452

Authors: Sori Teshale, Dirk Geysen, Gobena Ameni, Ketema Bogale, Pierre Dorny, Dirk Berkvens

Objective: To identify Anaplasma spp. in questing ticks with emphasis on Anaplasma phagocytophilum (A. phagocytophilum) and Anaplasma ovis (A. ovis) in Ethiopia. Methods: DNA extracted from 237 questing ticks [Rhipicephalus evertsi (R. evertsi) (n = 61), Rhipicephalus pulchellus (R. pulchellus) (n = 54), Rhipicephalus decoloratus (n = 1), Amblyomma variegatum (n = 22), Amblyomma lepidum (n = 36), Amblyomma nymphs (n = 6), Amblyomma gemma (n = 7) and Hyalomma marginatum (Hy. marginatum) (n = 53)] were tested by PCR-RFLP assay. Results: Overall 32 (13.33%; 95% confidence interval: 9.8%–18.3%) of the ticks were positive for Anaplasma spp. DNA. Anaplasma marginale was detected in Hy. marginatum and R. pulchellus. Anaplasma centrale was identified in R. evertsi, R. pulchellus and Hy. marginatum. A. ovis was detected in R. evertsi, Amblyomma spp. and Hyalomma spp. A. phagocytophilum was detected only in R. pulchellus and Anaplasma sp. omatijenne was detected only in Amblyomma lepidum. Ehrlichia species were not detected in any of the tick species examined. Conclusions: The results demonstrated the presence of several Anaplasma spp. including the zoonotic A. phagocytophilum and potentially zoonotic A. ovis. Our finding identified potential vectors of A. ovis to be further confirmed. However, an extended study is needed to identify the potential vectors of A. phagocytophilum. The variety of Anaplasma spp. indentified in this study suggests risks of anaplasmosis in animals and humans in the country.

460-462

Authors: Hosein Miladi, Mojtaba Didehdar, Reza Hajihossein, Fatemeh Rafiei, Zahra Eslamirad

Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of toxocariasis in individuals with the normal and abnormal level of liver enzymes. Methods: In this case-control study, the serum samples were collected in the individuals referred to diagnostic laboratories of Arak in Iran. A total of 144 sera with abnormal level of liver enzymes were selected as cases and the same numbers of sera with the normal level of liver enzymes also were selected as controls. The sera were examined for anti-Toxocara IgG. Results: Twelve (4.2%) sera contained anti-Toxocara antibody and all of them were in the case group. Although the mean of all liver enzymes was significantly different in the two groups (P < 0.05), statistical test showed no relationship between the level of liver enzymes and toxocariasis. Conclusions: It was concluded that the liver enzyme alteration is not the valid indicator for predicting toxocariasis. Because the kind of liver dysfunction, that is caused by the larvae of Toxocara, is unspecified, and it seems factors such as the number of larvae can play a basic role for the emergence of alterations.

468-471

Authors: Rajiv Gandhi Munusamy, Daniel Reegan Appadurai, Sivasankaran Kuppusamy, Gabriel Paulraj Michael, Ignacimuthu Savarimuthu

Objective: To evaluate the ovicidal and larvicidal activities of hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts of Gymnema sylvestre, Scilla peruvina, Rubia cordifolia (R. cordifolia) and Elytraria acaulis roots against the eggs and larvae of Aedes aegypti L. (Ae. aegypti) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Cx. quinquefasciatus) at different concentrations of 62.5, 125, 250 and 500 mg/L. Methods: The plant materials were shade dried in the laboratory for one week and then coarsely powdered. The root powder of each plant (500 g) was sequentially soaked in hexane, chloroform and methanol for 96 h with intermittent shaking. After 96 h, the solution was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure by using rotary vacuum evaporator. All the crude extracts thus obtained were stored in air tight glass vials and Petri dishes. Results: The ovicidal activity results showed that the methanol extract of R. cordifolia root was the most potent compared to other with 82.40% and 70.40% activity against the eggs of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti, respectively, at 500 mg/L concentration similarly, methanol extract of R. cordifolia root also recorded the highest larvicidal activity with LC50 and LC90 values of 95.69, 347.96 mg/L against Cx. quinquefasciatus and 102.23, 350.20 mg/L against Ae. aegypti larvae, respectively. Conculsions: Hence, methanol extract of R. cordifolia root can be probed further for effective biological control of mosquitoes.

481-485

Authors: Betty Yosephin, Hadi Riyadi, Faisal Anwar, Ali Khomsan, Nur Elly, Rian Diana

Objective: To find out the determinant factors which are associated with the serum vitamin D status in the female garment workers. Methods: This study was a cross sectional design with a total of 154 childbearing female garment workers aging from 18 to 40 who worked at garment factory in Sukabumi, Indonesia and fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Serum 25(OH)D was determined using a chemiluminescence immunoassay method. Ordinal logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors influencing serum vitamin D status. Results: The results of this study showed that on average serum 25(OH)D of the workers was 31.6 nmol/L and only 5.2% of them had a sufficient status of vitamin D. There were no different proportion among body mass index, supplement consumption, energy, protein, calcium, and vitamin D adequacy level with the serum vitamin D status of the workers. The workers who wore veils had a higher proportion to have a deficient serum vitamin D compared to workers who did not use veils (P = 0.000). The women who wore veils had a higher risk of vitamin D deficiency than the women who did not wear any veil. Conclusions: A need of vitamin D can be obtained from sunlight. Therefore it is suggested that the garment provide an opportunity for the garment workers to do exercise in the morning so that the workers can get sunlight prior to working.

489-491

Authors: Zineb Tlamcani

Cryptococcosis is commonly known as a central nervous system infection due to Cryptococcus neoformans. It is one of the most frequent infections in AIDS patients. Disseminated cryptococcosis appears in almost one third of these patients. In this review, we will discuss the clinical presentation of cryptococcal infections among HIV patients and various methods of diagnosis, such as India ink, latex agglutination test and culture.

502-504

Authors: Sidra Sabir, Muhammad Arshad, Mubashir Hussain, Huma Mehreen Sadaf, Sohail, Muhammad Imran, Farhat Yasmeen, Saboon, Sunbal Khalil Chaudhari

Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf belonging to family Ranunculaceae is an important medicinal plant of Himalaya regions. Its medicinal potential is due to the presence of pharmacologically active compounds such as At, aconitine, benzoic acid, aconine and flavanoids. This plant has notable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. Traditionally, this plant is used for the treatment of asthma, cough, neuraldisorders, cardiac diseases as well as for curing sciatica and joint pain. Due to remarkable medicinal values and commercialization, this plant is threatened and it is at high risk of extinction. Conservation practices and management techniques should be carried out to protect this important plant from extinction. Recent biotechnological approaches will be quite helpful for its conservation.