Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

21-34

Authors: Trepavlov V.V.

This article is first to discuss the position of beglerbegi as one of the highest elite ranks in the system of traditional Turkic-Mongolian statehood. The author proposes some assumptions about its genesis analyzing information from medieval written and folklore sources. The study of this institution can contribute to the understanding of the peculiarities and regularities of social development of Turkic peoples throughout the long historical period. The beglerbegi institution (i.e. of the supremacy among the military elite) was formed among the Turkic Oghuzes not earlier than in the 11th century, but had a lengthy background in ancient societies of the proto-State stage. It became one of the matrix forms for the functioning of the Turkic nomadic polities and was revived in the Ulus of Jochi as a result of the social strengthening of nomadic aristocracy. It was introduced, firstly, due to the favorable economic and demographic conditions of the 13th century; and secondly, with the crisis and repressions in the ruling house of Batu during the reign of khan Tokhta and early reign of Uzbek khan, when Jochids, fighting for power, lost a support of their relatives and members of the dynasty and found it among the nomadic begis. The revival of Turkic institution of beglerbegi was stimulated both by Turkization of the Golden Horde court and bureaucracy and by penetration of the Iranian and Oghuz-Seljuk elements into a state system. The latter phenomenon was promoted both by a temporary reconciliation between traditionally hostile uluses of Jochi and Hulagu as well as by adoption of Islam as State religion in the Golden Horde. A typological correspondence between the Golden Horde beglerbegi and archaic leader of druzhina allows us to see in this institution the element of ancient Turkic legacy. The logic of historical development of the Golden Horde led to an excessive increase in the competence of chief begi, although he did not replaced the khan. By the weakening of Jochid statehood, the beglerbegis’ impact on the life of post-Horde States significantly increased since the late 14th century. In some of them, this position was monopolized by begis from the Turkic tribe of Manghyt.

61-73

Authors: Zaynuddinov D.R.

In this article, the author presents the library of Sulaymaniyah (Istanbul) and the National Library of Turkey (Ankara) in the light of manuscript sources. The author gives a description of the thirteen Turkic, four Persian, and seven Arabic sources on the history of the Golden Horde. The author pays particular attention to the work of Egyptian author Ibn Taghribirdi (813–874 AH), «al-Manhal al-safi wa-al-mustawfa bada al-wafi» (Clean and completing source after the full one). This work is an extensive biographical collection of outstanding personalities of the epoch, in which Ibn Taghribirdi lived.

95-119

Authors: Garustovich G.N.

This article reviews the features of the funeral ceremonies in the Muslim mausoleums of 14th century in the Ulus of Jochi (Ak-Horde). The author states that there was an independent architectural school in cultic memorial architecture of the Golden Horde. This school can be recognized in its stone and brick mausoleums. The author analyses features of the funeral tradition of the period when the dual faith believes (period of the nascence of Islam) was spread all over the steppe empire. The Muslim burials appeared in the times of Islamization, a policy pursued by Uzbeg khan and his successors in 14th century. The mausoleums were built for the aristocracy. The author believes that they also served as a monumental propaganda of Islam. From the very beginning, those monumental buildings in the steppe areas were turned into the venues with the social significance, into the sacral places for worshiping the ancestors, into the sacral monuments of the tribal territories. At the same time, the mausoleums, initially built as the family burials of the elite of the nomad empire, were keeping their first function. Thus, the empire’s ruling class was trying to win over the aristocratic members of the society and get their loyalty in the process of conversion to the new monotheistic religion, which had become empire’s new ideology. Islam in the Ulus of Jochi was not accepted immediately and had to coexist with different religion in the 14th century. Muslim mausoleums contain significant number of the heathen artifacts (jewelry, clothes etc.), which can serve as the evidence of the coexistence of heathenism and Islam. In general, cultic memorial architecture accomplished its «mission». The Golden Horde was successfully Islamized. Over time, the Turkic people under the empire converted to Islam thus becoming the part of the world Muslim civilization.

135-146

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

The article analyzes the problem of the Kazan Khanate’s formation and its perception by contemporaries and descendants. The author reveals the factors that affected the perception of medieval writers and contemporary historians of the 17th–21st centuries. Based on the hermeneutical analysis of texts, the author makes conclusions about information value and reliability of some chronicle reports. The 15th century sources contain few data on the establishment of the Kazan Khanate. This topic became relevant only in the middle of the 16th century, when the Russian State began to implement an active policy with a view to joining of the Volga region. At this time, the Russian writers had already unambiguous concepts of the khanate’s formation. As a result, historians developed two basic approaches to the description of events. Supporters of the first approach claimed that the Kazan khanate was founded in 1437–1438 by the khan Ulu-Mahomed, other historians considered that Ulu-Mahomed’s son Mahmoud, who occupied Kazan in 1445, was the first Kazan khan. At the same time, none of the versions of the Kazan Khanate’s formation is supported by at least two independent sources. The first approach is based on the report of the «History of Kazan», the second view is based on the official reports of the Moscow chroniclers. The article reveals the allegorical nature of some reports of the «History of Kazan», which were perceived by historians literally and served as a source for the reconstruction of the historical reality. The idea of a violent accession of the Horde dynasty in Kazan widely circulated in official sources due to the fact that this idea justified military and diplomatic actions of Moscow, which were aimed in turn at subduing the khanate. The author points to the existence of additional information confirming the fact that the first khan was namely Mahmud and not Ulu-Muhammad. However, the author urges to refrain from categorical judgments about the dating and circumstances of the khanate’s establishment.

172-190

Authors: Gulevich V.P.

Captivated Mengli Giray remained the Crimean Khan nominally and lived more than a year under the full control of the Turks, probably in Caffa. Crimean Karachi-beys were united against Eminek during the struggle for power. As the result of their efforts, the «Cossack» prince Djanibek, the son of Akhmad Khan, became the Crimean ruler, independent from the Great Horde and the Ottoman Empire. Since he ruled as a sovereign ruler, Meñli’s stay in the Crimea lost sense and he was taken to Turkey in October–November 1476. In the late summer and early autumn 1477 Djanibek lost power under unknown circumstances and went to Moscow. Power in the Crimea was shared between Nur-Devlet and Idar. This probably happened with the assistance of Prince Abdullah and Barin Yamgurchi. After Eminek had lost his influence on khans, he fairly quickly managed to destabilize situation or use the unstable situation in the Crimea for his own purposes and, with the consent of the Turkish sultan, he once again brought to power Meñli Giray in the late 1478 or early 1479.

226-242

Authors: Küpeli Ö.

Starting from the 15th century, when the Crimean Khanate recognized the authority of the Ottoman Empire, its forces was actively used by the Ottoman Empire in its foreign policy. Especially the Tatars were indispensable allies in campaigns against Western European countries, Caucasus, and, subsequently, in the containment of the Moscow State. However, Tatar troops of the Crimean Khanate were also used in other political directions of the Ottoman Empire. The main rival of the Ottoman State in the east was the Safavid Iran. Troops of the Crimean Khanate also took part in these campaigns of the Ottomans. The author describes the participation of Tatar troops in the war with Iran. During the Ottoman military campaigns, the Tatars, for the most part, played a role of Akinji moving ahead of the Ottoman forces and collecting trophies and prey in hostile lands, rather than participating in the frontline battles. Initially, the Crimean khans participated only in the wars that took place in the western territories. However, the situation changed in the second half of the 16th century under Sultan Suleiman, when the Crimean cavalry was also involved in the eastern campaigns. The Tatars did not particularly want to participate in campaigns against Iran. There were cases, when these campaigns ended in tears: with the capture of the heir to the Crimean throne (Adil Giray), its execution and the defeat of the Tatar army. However, the Crimean khans participated in every campaign against Iran on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Disobeying the Sultan orders could lead to the replacement of khan (Mehmed Giray II). Archive documents reveal that the number of Tatar troops sent against Iran, ranged from 5 to 10 thousand soldiers, although the Ottoman sources overestimates the amount (30–40 thousand).

253-261

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M.

The article examines main works of the famous Turkish historian A.N. Kurat, his views and assessments of the Golden Horde history. It is known that A.N. Kurat introduced into scholarly circulation yarlyks-letters of the Golden Horde khans, which he found in the archives of the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. A number of his works and articles are devoted to the Golden Horde and its rulers. The article discusses the works of A.N. Kurat that are dedicated to the Golden Horde, as well as his main ideas, sources of the author. The works of A.N. Kurat still have not lost their significance. His works on the Golden Horde topics are mainly devoted to the source study, his reconstruction of events is based on primary sources of the Golden Horde origin. Kurat also noted the special importance of his own sources. In his works, he explored the following three Golden Horde documents: Bitik of Ulugh Muhammad Murad II, letter of Mahmud Khan bin Muhammad Khan bin Timur Khan to Fatih Sultan Mehmed, and letter of Ahmad Khan ibn Muhammad ibn Timur Khan to Fatih Sultan Mehmed. Kurat studied yarlyks and bitiks at a high scholarly level of source studies. They still are the basis for the study of the Golden Horde documents. Thanks to the good knowledge of the Ottoman, Russian, European sources, and historiography A.N. Kurat analyzed in detail the political situation in the Golden Horde; especially valuable are his works on the 15th century. His works on the period of Ulug Muhammad are still among the most important works devoted to this outstanding personage of the late Golden Horde. In his works Kurat asked himself: why the Golden Horde disintegrated? In search of answers to this question he put to the first place the confrontation between Tokhtamysh Khan and Timur Aksak. His conclusions about relationship between the Golden Horde and the Ottoman Empire are confirmed by the latest works on this topic.

265-266

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M.

This article contains a brief description of the International research conference «The Medieval Turkic-Tatar States and their Neighbors in the System of International Relations (15th–18th centuries)». This International conference was held in Kazan on 14–15 March, 2014. The conference was organized by Sh.Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan. The conference was attended by numerous researchers who specialize in various historical disciplines and arrived at the conference from different countries. The author gives a brief description of the papers presented at the conference.

22-32

Authors: Zhdanovich O.P.

The article presents annotated translation from ancient Greek into Russian of the book of Menander Protector. In this text Menander Protector describes first the Turkish embassy to the Persians, and then to the Byzantines. The Great Turkic Khanate was the first Steppe empire in history. The relationship between Turkic Khanate and Byzantine Empire began from the middle of 6th century, parallel to the establishment of the Steppe empire. The purpose of the first Turkish embassies to the Byzantines was conclusion of an alliance against the Persians. Since the end of the 4th century Sassanid Empire and Byzantium challenged each other for the territory of Armenia, part of Georgia and the lands of southern Arabia. At the same time the Byzantine Empire’s relationship with the barbarians in the West were problematic. In addition it was going through a difficult economical and political period inside Empire. Another side of antagonism between Persian and Byzantine Empire was silk trade. Persian Empire had a monopoly on it. Byzantine Empire was in dire need of silk and was forced to buy it overpriced. Turks had silk and proposed it to Byzantines at a bargain price. This article contains the view of the problems of relationship between European Byzantine and Asian Nomadic civilizations in terms of Byzantine author. Previously the Russian translation of Menander Protector was done in the middle of the 19th century by Spiridon Destunis. However, his translation was fragmented and unprofessional containing many imprecisions. Our versions have many rectifications and important comments to some elements of Nomadic and Byzantine style of life. This research should help to understand some part of life, customs and diplomacy of ancient Turks.

43-63

Authors: Ushnitsky V.V.

The article examines the problem of the origin of the people of Sakha (Yakutia) in the light of the latest research. Basing on archaeological materials the ethnogenesis of Sakha is associated with the Baikal region’s Ust’-Tal’kinsky archaeological culture of the 12th–14th centuries. Analysis of written sources allows to associate representatives of Ust’-Tal’kinsky archaeological culture with the Usutu-mangun tribe identical with the Angara Tatars and referred to in the writings of Rashid al-Din and Abu al-Ghazi. Probably, the Angara Tatars migrated from Central Asia and compactly inhabited the Angara region near Lake Buir-Nur. The article analyzes connection between Sakha folklore sources and real history of Central Asian Tatars.

75-78

Authors: Sayfetdinova E.G.

The author considers the special nature of the penetration of the Sufi tradition in the spiritual culture of the Golden Horde. Being a part of the spiritual culture, literary monuments from the Golden Horde epoch played a significant role in the spread of Islam in the Golden Horde. Islam rooted in the Golden Horde thanks to the fact that Sufism gave the Muslim form to the Turkic-Mongolian beliefs. The «Nahj al-Faradis» («Pathway to the Heavens»), the literary monument from the Golden Horde era, narrates about the introduction and diffusion of Islam in the Turkic-Mongolian religious and mundane traditions.

101-118

Authors: Uzelac A.

Serbian narrative and documentary texts, written in the first half of the XIV century, represent valuable source material for the research of Tatar political and military influence in the Balkan lands. Most important among them are Vita of King Stephen Uroš II Milutin (1282–1321), extant in three different editions and Vita of Archbishop Daniel II (1324–1337). The first one offers insight into the relations between the Kingdom of Serbia and the powerful Juchid prince Nogai, while in the latter, the key role of Tatar contingents in internal power struggle between king Milutin and his brother Stephen Dragutin is mentioned. The presence of Tatars in the Battle of Velbazhd (1330), fought between Serbia and the Bulgarian Empire, is also attested in various sources, including the so-called Old Serbian chronicles and the Code of Law of Emperor Stephen Dušan (1349). Another group of sources analyzed in the text are several apocryphal writings of South Slavic literature. Their value lies in the fact that they reflect the image of the Tatars in the eyes of the Balkan Slavs. Last, but not least important testimony of Tatar activities in Serbian lands is preserved in place-names of Tatar origin, recorded in royal charters, issued by Milutin’s son Stephen (1321–1331) and grandson Stephen Dušan (1331–1355).

123-127

Authors: Gorsky A.A.

The article discusses the idea that the name “Bolshaya Orda” (“Great Horde”), used in the Russian sources, is the translation of the Turkish “Ulug Orda”. The author justifies the position that this term has Russian origin, meaning “the most influential among the Hordes”.

163-173

Authors: İnalcık H.

The article examines the period of transition of the territory of Crimea under protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. Recently in the archives of the Topkapi Palace Museum have been discovered new documents on the history of the Golden Horde containing the letters of the Crimean khans and Beys. On the basis of new historical sources, author clarifies the contentious issues related to the agreement between Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and Mengli I Giray and reveals the reasons that influenced the way the Crimea became subservient to the Ottoman Empire.

190-211

Authors: Ivanov V.A.

The article examines the problem of so-called “imperial culture” of the Golden Horde. The author analyzes the archaeological material regarding it as a component of “imperial culture”. The author evaluates the quality of the archaeological material as well as the breadth and intensity of its distribution among the population of the Golden Horde and the neighboring tribal areas, which the author considers a priori as consumers of this “imperial culture”. Based on this analysis, the author concludes that in general, the concept of “imperial culture” of the Golden Horde is a chimera. In turn, the expected powerful effect of “imperial culture” of the Golden Horde in the culture of neighboring peoples of the Urals and the Volga region is a mirage created by the imagination of researchers.

221-223

Authors: Mirgaleev I.М.

This article contains a short report on the Vth International Bulgarian Forum under the name of “Political and Ethno-Cultural Interaction between States and Peoples in the Post-Golden Horde Space (15th–16th centuries)”. The forum was held in the city of Yalta (the Crimea) at the 6th–11th of November in 2013. Coordinators of the forum were Shigabutdin Marjani Institute of History of Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan and the Crimean branch of Archaeology Institute of National academy of Sciences of the Ukraine. The Forum was attended by many well-known experts, whose reports have caused heated debate. The greatest interest was aroused by the following reports: Kradin Nicolay (Vladivostok, Russia). Medieval States of Eurasian Steppes: general and special; Trepavlov Vadim (Moscow, Russia). Institute of Beklyaribekship in the Socio-Political Structure of the Tatar Khanates; Vladimirov Georgi (Sofia, Bulgaria). Earrings in the Form of a Question Mark from Danubian Bulgaria (13th–14th centuries). Origin and area of distribution; Cherkas Boris (Kiev, Ukraine). Crimea and the Middle Dnieper Region in the Context of the Struggle in the Crimean Khanate in the 15th – the first third of the 16th centuries; Rusev Nikolay (Kishinev, Moldova). Tatars in Moldovan Charters of the 15th century; Izmailov Iskander (Kazan, Russia). Ethnocultural Interaction of the Kazan Khanate Population with Adjacent Territories; Ilnur Mirgaleev (Kazan, Russia). “Chingiz-name” of Utemish-Hadji as a Source for the History of the Turko-Tatar States; Matveev Andrey, Tataurov Sergey (Tomsk, Russia). History of Siberian Khanate: chronology and cartography; Brehunenko Viktor (Kiev, Ukraine). Kazak-Crimean Military-Political Alliances of the end of the 16th – middle of the 17th century.

19-41

Authors: Rudenko K.A.

The Middle Volga-Kama region played a special role in Russian history. From ancient times this region was an important point for economic and commercial interests of Eastern and Western Europe as well as of the Oriental regions. The Volga-Kama region was affected in one degree or another by the global events of world history – the creation of world empires, such as the Turkic Khanate or the Golden Horde. The key moment of the regional history was the formation of the Volga Bulgaria state in the 10th century. It was a culture formed in the centre of the Volga-Kama region, which for more than two centuries determined the priorities in trade, economics, politics and cultural innovations. The system of settled communities of different organizational levels based on ethno-cultural characteristics of the local population was formed in the Volga Bulgar at different times. In the middle of the 11th century, Islam became the prevailing religion of the Volga Bulgarian population playing an important role in the development of the economic and political foundations of the state. The main development line of the Bulgarian material culture in the 11th–12th centuries was the displacement of ethnic preferences in standardized manufacture within the framework of public handcrafts and prevailing development of the most flexible elements of different ethnic culture. A new ethnos appeared to depend on its ethnic components and its development was largely determined by the initial substrate basis. The stability of this ethnosystem was determined by ethno-cultural tolerance.

60-72

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M., Kushkumbaev A.K.

This paper discusses the problem of the localization of the Ak Horde and Kok Horde. Based on interpretating new sources, the authors provide their own version of the Ak and Kok Hordes’ location. The article also addresses the issue of the Boz Horde and its relation to the uluses of Shiban and Shibanids. The authors argue in favor of the version that is close to the Chingiz-name providing a critical analysis of different sources on the location of the Ak and Kok Hordes. In addition, the article presents arguments in favor of the identification of Ak Horde as the center of the Ulus of Jochi, defining the Kok and the Boz Hordes as its left and right wings respectively.

101-116

Authors: Fomenko I.K.

The article presents the development of the European cartography of Eurasia as a reflection of the gradual accumulation of geographic and ethnographic information about the people and the state, which historical destiny was directly connected with the formation and subsequent dissolution of Genghis Khan’s empire. The author traces the gradual increase of information on eastern regions among western cartographers, which however consistently compared the strengthened Russian State with the “Tartar kingdoms”. The author emphasizes as well the importance of the information provided by the European maps for the study of the state structure of the Golden Horde, of the formation of the new Eurasian nations and of Russia’s relations with the Tatar states.

128-145

Authors: Iskhakov D.M., Tychinskikh Z.A.

The authors discuss the problem related to the Shibanids’ presence on the territory of the Bulgar Vilayet of the Ulus of Jochi in the 13th–14th centuries. Analysis of the various sources of Turko-Tatar, Mongolian and Russian origin (chronicles, dastans, genealogies, etc.) allowed the authors to conclude that the transition of the territory of the Volga Bulgar (from the city of Bilyar to the east) under the Shibanid authority occurred at the time of the Mongol conquest in 13th century. It is therefore in the future (up to the end of the 15th century) the Shibanids and related clans could claim authority not only in the Bulgar Vilayet, but also in the Kazan Khanate, which arose on its ground.

158-190

Authors: Ponomarev A.L.

Four account books of the Genoese colony in Caffa kept in 1420–1426 by its treasurers (massarii) are still unpublished as a whole. Almost four hundreds records in these manuscripts deal with the Tartar-Genoese relations and the political situation in Crimea. Combined with the numismatic data and evidences from chronicles and state correspondence they let the author to ascertain up to weeks and days the chronology of khans’ reign. After the death of the first Crimean khan Bek Sufi in 1421 his brother Dawlat Berdi (the kinship became evident from these records) struggled for power with his cousin Ulugh Muhammed, khan of the Golden Horde, for six years and climbed to the Solhat throne four times. The newly obtained information proves that neither Bek Sufi nor Dawlat Berdi, cannot be treated as the khans of the Golden Horde. They were two of the first members of the Tukatimurid dynasty which came to power in Crimea. The separatism and the might of the Crimean tribal beks were a real reason and basis for forming this independent khanate. The same beks reestablished the dynasty in 1441 having invited to the throne Haji Giray, nephew of both khans, who gave his name to the dynasty of the state, established in 1419. It was necessary to use original Latin texts to understand the history that accompanied the research.

217-227

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M.

The author examines the foreign policy of the Golden Horde in relation to the Ilkhanate of Persia in the 13th–14th centuries. The basics of the Golden Horde foreign policy towards Hulaguids were laid down during the reign of Berke Khan and remained a priority until the collapse of the Ilkhanate.

22-35

Authors: Klyashtorny S.G.

The article examines the earliest stages of the history of the Tatars. The origins of the Tatars are traced from the collapse of both the Han Empire and the Empire of Xiongnu and are considered during the subsequent periods preceding the emergence of the empire of Genghis Khan. The author argues that the Tatar state appeared long before the Mongol era, providing information on the resettlement of the Tatars in the 9th and 10th centuries, which explains why a century later the Mongols, who occupied the same space, were called the “Tatars” in the Turkic and Muslim environment, as well as in China. This Turkic desig­nation of the Mongols took root not only in Central Asia and the Middle East but also in Russia and Western Europe.

45-56

Authors: Jackson T.N.

The article deals with geographic descriptions in the Icelandic sagas. In the 12th through the 14th centuries Scandinavia special geographical works contained descriptions of the inhabited world based both on West-European chorographical tradition and local topographic information about Northern and Eastern Europe. At the same time we can often come across “written geography” in the sagas. Geographical descriptions occur in the sagas of different genres, their functions and their sources are quite varied. Different saga authors possessed different degrees of skill in inserting the geographical material into their narrative. The main attention in this article is paid to the geographic description that we find in the Icelandic “Göngu-Hrólfs saga”, relating to the sagas of ancient times and written down, probably, at the beginning of the 14th century, namely – to the description of Tattararíki, that is the “State of the Tatars”.

65-72

Authors: Gorsky A.A.

The article considers the dynamics of relations between Russia and the Horde during the 15th century. These relations were determined by the gradual disintegration of the Horde and the parallel strengthening of the Moscow principality. The author defines the main attributes of the Russian political dependence on the Horde in the 14th century (the practice of granting the yarlyk’s authorizing the rule of the Russian princes and their obligation to pay an “exit fee”), which had a direct influence on the nature of mutual relations. The article traces both the persistent attempts of the Moscow princes to free themselves from vassalage during periods of political instability in the Horde and the constant tendency to recognize subordination in the periods of the strengthening of the khans’ power. The author points to a significant activation of the foreign policy of the Moscow princes over a few decades prior to the approval of Russian independence. This tendency had determined the subsequent foreign policy of the Muscovite tzars after the collapse of the Horde at the beginning of the 16th century.

82-95

Authors: Fomenko I.K.

The article presents the development of the European cartography of Eurasia as a reflection of the gradual accumulation of geographic and ethnographic information about people and states, which history was directly connected with the formation and subsequent dissolution of Genghis Khan’s empire. The author traces the gradual increase in the information on eastern regions among western cartographers, which however consistently compared the strengthened Russian State with the “Tartar kingdoms”. The author emphasizes as well the importance of the information provided by the European maps for the study of the state structure of the Golden Horde, of the formation of the new Eurasian nations and of Russia’s relations with the Tatar states.

110-146

Authors: Gulevich V.P.

The history of the Crimean Khanate’s foundation still remains poorly studied. Also, little is known about the early years of the first Crimean khan Haci I Giray whose ancestors ruled in the Crimea and the Golden Horde. In the 20s of the 15th century the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas actively intervened in the affairs of the Crimea and the Golden Horde trying to establish his sovereignty in the city of Caffa, where he strove to nominate subordinated khans. However, at the end of his reign, he could not exert a serious military pressure because until he died, he was occupied with his coronation. The boundaries of the Crimean tumen extended from the river Dniester in the West to the Volga River in the East, from the mean flow of the Dnieper and Southern Bug River in the North to the coastal cities of the Crimean peninsula in the south. In the first half of 15th century, there were many stationary settlements of Tatars in the Black Sea steppes. Thus, the tumen occupied a large territory. Having a great military power, the Crimean rulers did not separate the Crimean Ulus from the Golden Horde, but used the peninsula as a staging area for the seizure of power in the state capital city of Sarai. The Tatar nobility also sought to enthrone those khans who would be dependent on them. One of their strongest representatives was Tehene-bey who had a residence in Solkhat on the Crimean peninsula. He persuaded Vytautas to give them Ulugh Muhammad as a khan. In response, the khan nominated Tehene-bey as his deputy in the Crimea. A few years later, Ulugh Muhammad quarreled both with Tehene-bey and the Lithuanian ruler Švitrigaila. In 1433, the Grand Duke of Lithuania helped Khan Sayid Ahmad II both to split the Golden Horde and to seize power on the right bank of the Dnieper. According to many historians, Haci Giray seized power in the Crimea and defeated a Genoese military detachment in 1434, but this statement is not confirmed by the written sources and numismatic data. The assumption of some historians that Haci Giray took power with the help of the Lithuanian Grand Duke, Sigismund Keystutovich, has no confirmation. The Crimean peninsula had been owned by Ulugh Muhammad Khan before 1441, and thereafter by Sayid Ahmad II for a short time. It is not known exactly where Haci I Giray had been staying in the 30s, but in the early 40’s, he resided in Lithuania. In the spring of 1442, Tehene-bey arrived in Lithuania with the Embassy of the Crimean nobles and convinced the new Lithuanian ruler, Casimir, to allow Haci Giray to become the Khan of Crimea. The analysis of sources leads to the conclusion that Haci Giray appeared as a khan in March-April 1442. Possibly the actions of the Lithuanian Grand Duke in relation to Crimea were agreed with his elder brother Władysław III, King of Poland and Hungary. The Ambassador T. Buczacki visited Haci Giray in the summer of 1442 on behalf of Władysław III. He returned to Hungary together with the ambassador of the Tatar khan. Haci I Giray remained under the patronage of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This is confirmed by the peace agreements signed in February and June 1442 between the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Casimir and ruler of Moldavia, Iliaş I. Using the patronage of the Lithuanian ruler, Haci Giray quickly established his authority on the Crimean peninsula.

164-176

Authors: Gemil T.

Although the Tatars occupy an important place in the history of southeastern Europe, the majority of local historians played down the significance of the Tatars, and this trend is occurring even today. The reason for this was primarily the fact that the Tatars were confused with the Mongols, and due to this erroneous perception the Christian Church for centuries waged propaganda against the Tatars. Romanian historians as well approach with prejudice to the topics relevant to the Tatars. The most important historical fact is that the Tatars and their ancestors the Kipchaks / Polovtsy (Cumans) played an important role in the formation and subsequent development both of the Romanian nation and statehood. In the history of Romania, the Tatars and the Ottoman Turks acted as defenders. The Tatars of Crimea, of Dobruja, and of Budjak repeatedly performed this defensive duty.

207-221

Authors: Hautala R.

In this paper I would like to present fragments of the Russian chronicles from the 13th and 14th centuries dedicated to the period of submission of Rus’ to the Mongols in 1237–1260. The process of submission of Russia to the Golden Horde is divided into two periods. The first one (1237–40) regards properly the Mongol invasion of Russian territories. The second period (1240–60) concerns the gradual submission of Russia to the Golden Horde, the process which had a more peaceful nature. The Mongol invasion was the defining moment for Kievan Rus’: for the first time in its history, the Russian population underwent a full-scale extermination with the destruction of chief towns. Contemporary to the invasion, Russian chronicles describe warfare at length and show emotional involvement as well. The requirement of the Mongol governors of absolute submission to their power with payment of the tenth share from all types of income and property are perceived as absolutely inadmissible. The succeeding destruction of the main towns of Russia, the last centres of resistance, is perceived in chronicles as a divine punishment for lack of military cooperation between the Russian princes. The Mongols themselves are presented as absolutely alien to orthodox culture and their pagan customs cause disgust in the authors of Russian chronicles. The subsequent period of the gradual submission of Russia to the Golden Horde is not less important in the evolution of political and cultural relations between nomads and the Russian settled population. Russian chronicles testify to fast restoration of towns after the Mongol invasion and stabilization of economic life. The governors of the Golden Horde are limited by the requirement of formal submission of the Russian princes which avoided direct military showdowns. Russia gradually became involved in the fiscal system of the Mongolian empire, but in exchange Russian princes receive a considerable political autonomy.