Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

208–224

Authors: Hautala R.

Research objectives: The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the Golden Horde since the second half of the 13th century. Research materials: These sources seem to be important primarily because they include “internal” sources, namely, reports of Catholic missionaries compiled in the territory of the Golden Horde and sent to the leadership of the Mendicant orders (mainly the Franciscan Order of the Friars Minor) in Europe. The body of writings also includes “external” sources, that is, papal bulls addressed to the Golden Horde rulers, the missionaries themselves in the dominions of these rulers, and their subjects in the steppes and cities of the Golden Horde whom the Roman curia regarded as immediate targets for their missionary activity. In addition, narrative descriptions of the Franciscan chroniclers who received information either directly from missionaries returning from the Golden Horde, or through their unpreserved letters, are discussed here as “external” Latin sources. The novelty of this study stems from its comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls, and Franciscan chronicles, which allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history. Research results: In particular, the author resorted to a comparison of missionary and Eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek, and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author sought to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tried to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article.

242– 253

Authors: Kaziev E.V.

Objective: To ascertain the time and circumstances of the As people’s incorporation into the service of the Mongol Empire’s supreme rulers. Research materials: Biographies of the As military commanders found in the section of “Biographies of the Famous” in the Chinese “History of the Yüan Dynasty” (Yuan Shi) as well as information from the Franciscan friars’ accounts of their missions in the Mongol Empire. Results and novelty of the research: For the first time, a single study summarizes the available information from written sources about the time and circumstances of the As people’s joining Mongol service. It has been ascertained that the Franciscan John of Marignolli’s information on the As people’s service among the Mongols since the time of Chinggis Khan is not confirmed by information from other synchronous written sources which does not allow one to advance anything further than assumptions on this matter. In addition, this study exposes factual errors contained in A.I. Ivanov’s Russian translation of the As military commanders’ biographies presented in the “History of the Yuan Dynasty” which led to the incorrect definition in the academic tradition of the time and circumstances of the As people’s incorporation into Mongol service. The original text of the mentioned Chinese source makes it possible to assert that the As people entered Mongol service only under Ögödei Khan during the Western campaign after having sworn allegiance to the Chinggisid Prince Möngke. All other arguments for the time-frame of this subjugation are not confirmed in the sources and remain only assumptions, which, however, have been presented as facts in the academic tradition.

266–282

Authors: Petrov P.N., Kamishev A.M.

At present, all historians and archaeologists concerned with historical events of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries connected to the city of Taraz use its name only in reference to the medieval site whose occupation layers are located under buildings of the modern city of Taraz in Kazakhstan. The name of Yangi Taraz is also attributed to this medieval site. This surprising identification arose in connection to studying of monetary production and its circulation from Taraz in the period of interest. By studying the volume of coins issues in Taraz city in the last third of the thirteenth century and establishing that monetary production was very considerable even on the scale of the entire state, there arose a question – Why are these coins not found in occupation layers in the territory of Taraz studied by archaeologists at all? And in that case where was the Yangi Taraz of the Mongol period located? The purposes of the present article are: 1) To identify the locations of high concentration the Chagataid’s coins of Taraz – both copper and silver ones – that is, to determine the location of the Taraz monetary production in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; 2) To make an attempt to understand the notions of modern scholarly historians regarding the functioning of Taraz during this period. The study of numismatic finds from the territory of the Talas valley in Kyrgyzstan made it possible to locate a cluster of coins originating from the cities of Taraz, Yangi Taraz and Ordu Bazar near the medieval site of Pokrovsk II. Numismatic finds both from Pokrovsk II and Taraz in Kazakhstan are considered in detail in this article. Thus, it was established that the location of the mint of Yangi Taraz was if not for the most part located at Pokrovsk II, then it was at least somewhere nearby. Narrative sources report that there were two cities of Taraz – Ulug Taraz and Kami Taraz. Some mistakes of different authors in their historical interpretations and conclusions have been caused by the existence of two closely located cities with same name of Taraz in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

295–317

Authors: Tishin V.V.

Research objectives: This article discusses some issues related to the problem of the relationship between the concepts of the “Golden Horde”, the “White Horde”, and the “Blue Horde”, with an emphasis on the term “horde” itself – both as a scientific definition and as a historical concept related to the phonetic forms in which it situated in the sources. The author proposes to reveal the original meaning of the term ordo ~ orda and to outline the stages of expansion of its semantics with the delineation of semantic fields. Research materials: The article may be considered largely as a kind of commentary on the research of recent years. Since all materials on the affected issues have been known to researchers for a long time, the selection of sources looks proverbially traditional. These are Mongolic, Chinese, Latin, Muslim (Arabic and Persian), and Old Russian texts containing the word ordo in its various forms. The author did not use the whole body of sources, but rather the most illustrative materials in his opinion. Mostly, the linguistic material was employed which comprises the lexical basis for researching specific languages. Research results and novelty: In the process of researching the contexts of using of the term ordo ~ orda in various sources and different orthographic variants (corresponding to phonetic ones), the author came to the following contention. Secondary senses reflecting one of the aspects of the original sense evolved from the basic meaning recorded among thirteenth-century Mongols – “the abiding-place of a ruler, his family, his entourage, and all the attendants”. Since the development took place in parallel, this did not exclude the words being used with different intended meanings in the same texts, which can be revealed only as a result of the analysis of the context. The contexts of the use of the term in the sources make it possible to assert that there was a process of expansion of the term’s original meaning, reflected in the perception of different authors being representatives of foreign cultures. This occurs in the period after the middle of the fourteenth century, being directly caused by the events of political history of the Jochid ulus as it was plunged into an era of trouble. Also, the emergence of additional senses associated with the concept of territory was the result of a comprehension of the word in related contexts within the worldview specific for sedentary cultures. The author of the article accepts the point to identity the terms “Golden Horde” and “White Horde”, both contrasted with the concept “Blue Horde”, originally associated respectively with the designation of the domains of the descendants of Batu in the western part, and the descendants of Urdu in the eastern part, of the Jochid ulus. In addition, it is recognized that the hypothesis on the correlation of these color markers with the traditional geosymbolism of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples is not sufficiently substantiated although it is theoretically permissible. The fact that the term ordo ~ orda with both color markers of “gold” and “white” was more often associated with the sense “qan’s tent”, corresponds with the source data on similar epithets for tents of different qans. Historically, the possession of such tent was typical for certain leaders, at least in the Mongolian tradition, but from an early age it had come to be claimed as the attribute of the rulers of the Jochid ulus primarily. Nonetheless, a solid identification of the relationship between the concepts “golden” and “white” requires special research.

333–338

Authors: Zaytsev I.V.

Objective: This paper attempts to ascertain the etymology of the Russian word tavrui in connection with the possibility of the existence of tugra among the Kazan khans. Research materials: Scribal materials of the Kazan Uyezd in 1565–1568. Results and novelty of the research: The author shows that the Russian word tavrui, mentioned in the scribal book in relation to the khan's signs of ownership, despite its apparent proximity to the word for "brand", may in fact be etymologically related to the Turkic word Togrul "Falcon".

351–371

Authors: Trepavlov V.V.

Objective: To study the historical circumstances of the emergence in the 15th century Dašt-i Kipchak of a politonym, Shibans, and to define the circumstances which have prevented its successful transformation into an ethnonym. Research materials: This article is based on the works of Central Asian, Persian and European authors of the 15th–17th centuries (Abu-l-Ghazi, Ötemish Hajji, Fadlallah Isfahani, Khondemir, Mahmud b. Wali, Siegmund Herberstein, Paulus Iovius Novocomensis, etc.), the Russian chronicles, materials of diplomatic correspondence during the same period, and folklore texts. Results and novelty of the research: Within the 15th-century Dašt-i Kipchak, in the concentration of the Turkic nomad tribes known under the general name of Uzbeks, the community which has received the name of Shibans began to be formed from the population of the ulus of Shiban and the subjects of the Shibanid Khans. Similar to the communities of the Kazakhs and the Nogays formed at the same time, it had a potential for transformation from a fragile set of Turkic clans into a more stable ethno-social structure – something which would result in the forming of its own state, inside of which there would exist a special ethnic community with own (Shiban) identity. However, a number of historical circumstances, such as the strengthening of the Kazakhs, the separation of the Nogays from the former Uzbek khanate, and the massive migration of the Uzbeks to Central Asia, did not allow this process to ultimately unfold. In the new places of residence, in Transoxiana and Khwarezm, the Uzbek identity prevailed among the newly arrived migrants (along with former tribal ones). The designation of Shibans at first remained there for the subjects of Muhammad Shaybani Khan and of the Shibanid dynasty, but rather quickly it fell out of use.

392–400

Authors: Halperin Ch.J.

The latest monograph by Iurii Vasil’evich Seleznev of Voronezh State University, Kartiny ordynskogo iga, discusses the social and political interaction of Rus’ princes with the Juchid ulus (the Horde) during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. By examining trips by Rus’ princes to and from the Horde and the amount of time they spent at the Horde, the activities of Rus’ princes who became in-laws of the khans by marrying Chingissid princesses, Rus’ princely attendance at Horde quriltais (assemblies), how the Rus’ princes greeted khans who crossed Rus’ territory, Rus’ princely service in Horde military campaigns, possible Rus’ princely membership in the Horde’s Imperial Guard (keshig), the reception of Horde envoys by the Rus’ princes and the dispatch of Rus’ envoys to the Horde, and the judicial processes that led to the execution of Rus’ princes at Sarai or in the Horde’s nomadic camp, Seleznev demonstrates conclusively that the Rus’ princes had the opportunity to become familiar with Horde military strategy and tactics, Horde ceremonial and ritual, and Horde political culture. However, the question of the extent of Tatar influence on Rus’ political institutions and identity remains a difficult one.

8–21

Authors: Uzelac A.

Research objectives: An analysis of the background, circumstances and factors that led to the conclusion of the alliance between the Cuman fugitives from the Pontic Steppes and the Latin Empire of Constantinople, as well as its dissolution. Attention is also cast on some chronological issues and the participation of the Cumans in Frankish military campaigns. Research materials: Contemporary sources in which this episode is detailed, among them the most important being the works of Byzantine historian George Akropolites, French chronicler Alberic (Aubry) de Trois-Fontaines and another French author, Jean de Joinville, biographer of the French King Louis IX (1226–1270). Results and novelty of the study: The alliance concluded in Constantinople in the fall of 1239 between the Cumans and the Franks was without precedent in the western world. Together with the Cumans, the Frankish knights participated in a ceremony, performed according to nomadic customs. The ‘blood brotherhood’ was concluded between the two parties, and the alliance was consequently strengthened through the marital ties. Unlike Hungary, where the attempts to integrate the Cumans ended in failure due to the strong cultural and social differences between the newcomers and the local population, as well as internal instability, the Frankish elite in Constantinople was unanimous in their decision to compromise with the nomads, and there was no opposition to such an alliance. However, despite the fact that the Cumans were accepted in an exceptionally friendly manner, were held in high regard by the Frankish leadership and were allowed to retain their customs, the alliance did not last for long and was destined to be a failure. This was due to the complex internal and external factors such as lack of resources for the sustenance of the immigrants, the Mongol threat that loomed over the Latin Empire, and the untimely death of the Cuman leader Iona in 1241, whose personal authority was a guarantee of the alliance.

37–54

Authors: Kuleshov Yu.A.

Research objectives: To discuss, as far as possible, types of offensive weapons used in the Golden Horde. Materials: Combat flails are considered the research materials as a category of weapons that have not previously come into the analysis of specialists. Results and novelty of the research: Among researchers, it is generally accepted that combat flails were the exclusively weapons of non-professional soldiers who fought on foot. Accordingly, horsemen did not need to use such weapon. Moreover, as the results of the study showed, combat flails were part of the larger armaments of the Golden Horde’s warriors. In their hands it was a very formidable weapon. The novelty of the study lies in the expansion of our ideas about the weapons and warfare of the Golden Horde.

77–89

Authors: Vorotyntsev L.V.

Research objectives: A study of questions about the time of the emergence of the “Tatar” trade route (“Via Tatarica”), the influence of external factors and internal political processes in the ulus of Jochi on the formation and development of this trade route, and also identifying the causes of the decline and termination of the “Tatar Way”. Research materials: Travel notes of European diplomats and travelers such as John of Plano Carpini, William of Rubruck, Ambrogio Contarini and Guillebert de Lannoy, “Pratica della mercatura” of Francesco Pegolotti, “Descriptio veteris et novae Poloniae” of Stanisław Sarnicki, “Armenian History” of Kirakos of Ganjak, “History” of Vassaf, Compendium of Chronicles” of Rashid al-Din, Abu'l-Fida’s “Sketch of the Countries”, Gustynskaya Chronicle, notarial and administrative acts of the Republic of Genoa. Results and novelty of the research: This article for the first time ever considers the question of the time of formation and the stages of development of one of the transit trade routes of the northeastern Black Sea coast, which passed through the lands of the Golden Horde and the Galician-Volyn principality to the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, called the “Tatar Way” (“Via Tatarica”) in Western sources. The problem of dating the emergence of the “Tatar Way” is considered in the context of the military-political processes in the border areas between Galicia and the Golden Horde and also the relations between the Jochid ulus and the Ilkhanid state in the 1240–1290s. Based on an analysis of the sources, the author concludes that the end of the thirteenth to the beginning of the fourteenth century can be considered the most likely time of the formation of the “Tatar Way”. In the first half of the fourteenth century, it was one of the main transit trade routes passing through the territory of the Golden Horde. With the outbreak of internecine strife in the ulus of Jochi and the military expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Moldavian Principality, which caused a long period of military-political instability in the northwestern Black Sea region, the “Via Tatarica” gradually declined and finally ceased to exist in the first half of the fifteenth century.

115–130

Authors: Nagamine H.

Research objective: To analyze the issues concerning the manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg. To investigate the value of his work as a historical source, its sources and their influence on the historical perceptions of the author. Research materials: In the course of studying the manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg’s work, other historical sources were also analyzed: Chingīz-nāme/Qara Tavārīkh of Ötämish Ḥājī, ʻUmdet al-Akhbār of ‘Abd al-Ghaffār Qïrïmī, the anonymous Daftar-i Chingīz-nāme, in addition to specialized research on the history of the Jochids and the Later Jochid States. Results and novelty of the research: An analysis of the three manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg’s work suggests that unlike those of St. Petersburg and Kazan, the Paris manuscript belonged to another person. From the analysis of the work, we found that the relationship between the Jochids and the Manghïts was strengthened through the relations of khan–beg/bī and marriage (quda-anda). In terms of the influence of this work on later periods, we noted the possibility that it influenced, either directly or indirectly, the Yusupov genealogy. In addition, in this work, in terms of historical recognition, the author tried to assert both the legitimacy and the identity of the Kasimov khanate using the “principle of Chinggisid”. Thus, the work inherited the tradition of Turco-Mongolian historiography being connected with general history which was prevalent after the composition of the Jāmiʻ al-Tawārīkh of Rashid al-Dīn. The author recognized the history of the Later Jochid States as continuing from the Jochids (the Mongol Empire) and considered the collapse of the Jochids not as a new epoch following the disappearance of the Jochid State, but as one of reorganization and changes within the ruling Jochid lineages. The historical recognition of the author is also deeply reflected in the order of dastans in the original. Although the author justified, or could not but justify, the domination of the Muscovite tsar over the Later Jochid States, the phrase “duty of salt and bread (tuz-ötmäk ḥaqqï)” well illustrates that the Kasimov Khanate actually accepted the domination of the “pagan” Muscovite tsar and theoretically legitimated this situation.

159–174

Authors: Chernyshov S.A.

Research objective: To consider the communication practices of Ivan the Terrible, his predecessors, Russian diplomats and other representatives of the supreme power of the Moscow tsardom in the 15th–16th centuries in the context of the legitimization of rights to certain territories and ideas about historical continuity in general. Research materials: The study was conducted on the basis of the analysis of the chronicles, charter and diplomatic materials, along with historical and ethnographic studies. Results and novelty of the research: The article “Historical Examples in the Letters of Ivan IV to the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde” (“Golden Horde Review”, 2018, no. 2) published by M.V. Moiseev, opens up broad opportunities for discussion about the positioning of the legitimacy of the supreme Moscow authorities in the period under consideration. The importance of this article is extremely difficult to overestimate since the scrupulous embedding of images and narratives of certain events in official documents is still rarely a separate research task. At the same time, having touched upon an important topic for Russian historiography, M.S. Moiseev leads the discussion in the direction of comparing the versions set forth in diplomatic or other official documents with the historical reality reconstructed with the use of other material. It is obvious that such a comparison would inevitably lead to the conclusion that the versions of events found in official documents are inconsistent – something which does, in fact, happen. More productive is the comparison of communication practices that the supreme Moscow authorities were developing with western, eastern and (no less important) intra-elite counterparties. The mention of that last group, in particular, makes it possible to take a fresh look at the thesis on the elite consensus on those or other versions of the annexation of the Volga region and the legitimization of the Moscow tsar. On the materials of diplomatic correspondence, chronicles, literary monuments and studies of historians, it is concluded that the positioning of the supreme Russian government differed significantly depending on the addressee’s relative position: in the west, east or inside the country. Starting to build a harmonious official version of the legitimization of the power of the Moscow tsar quite late, court intellectuals and Ivan the Terrible himself formulated at least three different full-fledged versions of the origins of the power of Moscow tsars from which they justified their right to occupy an important place among the Western and Eastern rulers: Augustus, Chinggis Khan and Christ.

185–192

Authors: Rustemov O.D.

The book under review is dedicated to the peculiarities of Crimean Tatar society, its traditions, class etiquette, rights and obligations of residents of the state, and other social issues, which are reflected in various documents. A large number of such documents exist, comprising historical treatises, travel records, testimonies of ambassadors of foreign countries, etc. The central place among these sources is occupied by the judicial registers of the Shari'a courts, called sijjils or qadiasker books. The sociological aspects of this study fall predominantly on the reign of Murad Giray Khan when many traditions and peculiarities of the way of life crystallized in the Crimea. In addition, the figure of Murad Giray Khan is attractive owing to the attempts at reforms that he undertook, foreseeing the death of his state. The political external and internal position of many Crimean khans was distinguished by its duality. It was based on their status as vassals of the Ottoman Sultans. However, the Crimean khans were descendants of a more ancient and formerly powerful Chinggisid dynasty, and therefore they were more legitimate in the Turkic world in terms of the power of their rule. With rare exceptions, among the Crimean khans there was always a vivid desire for the return of the former greatness and power of the house of Chinggis, something which was often combined with a desire for independence from the Sublime Porte. These internal aspirations at times led to acts of disobedience and even open military confrontations. Such was the case of Khan Mehmed II Giray, nicknamed Semin (the Fat), who laid siege to the Caffa’s garrison in 1577, but these manifestations of “self-will” were invariably suppressed both by the superior military power of the Porte and by intrigues, skillfully played by Istanbul grandees among the Crimean clan aristocracy, whose representatives often raised revolts against their own khans.

676–695

Authors: Hautala R.

Research objectives: To consider and compare the processes of Islamization of nomads in the Hulaguid and Jochid uluses at the beginning of the rule of the Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304) and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan (1313–1341). Research materials: Persian synchronous sources on the process of Islamization of the Ilkhanate’s nomads connected to the Ilkhan Ghazan’s ascension to power, significantly supplemented by the eyewitness report of the Sufi Sheikh Sadr al-Din Ibrahim b. Sa’d al-Din Hammuya, found in the work of al-Jazari. These are contrasted by the information found in local Armenian and Nestorian sources with the addition of more information provided by Latin authors. The comparison is made of traditional information from Persian and Mamluk chronicles with that found in synchronous Latin sources compiled within the Juchid ulus in light of the events in the Golden Horde and an assessment of the religious policy of Uzbek Khan. The novelty of this study is an attempt to compare the consequences of the ascensions of “Islamizing” khans in both uluses and in contraposition between the Muslim sources inclined to exaggerate successes regarding the Islamization of local nomads on one hand, and the information of Christian eyewitnesses to events on the other hand, allowing us to essentially diversify the notion of the religious policy both of Ilkhan Ghazan and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan. As a result of a comparison of heterogeneous sources, the author comes to the conclusion that the rulers of both uluses were forced to adhere to the traditional policy of religious tolerance after they encountered the fierce resistance of nomads when they initially made moves to reverse it.

707–718

Authors: Pachkalov A.V.

Research objectives: The study of coin circulation in the Muran settlement (Samar region) during the Golden Horde period. Research materials: All the known coin finds from the Muran settlement. These finds are discussed in the context of earlier finds in this region (the excavations by V.N. Polevanov, A.E. Alikhova and others Russian researchers). The novelty of the research is represented by information about new unpublished coin finds from the Muran settlement. The results of research allow us to date the coin circulation of the Muran settlement from the second half of the thirteenth century to the 1360s. Besides Golden Horde coins, two ancient Greek coins were found at the Muran settlement. The distribution of coin finds is similar to the distribution of settlements of the Lower Volga region (mainly the Lower Volga mints of Saray, Saray al-Jadid and Gulistan). Most of the coins (more than half of the finds) date to the reigns of Uzbek Khan and Janibek Khan (1340–1350s). The Muran settlement was abandoned during the civil war in the early part of the 1360s. Coins dating from later than the beginning of the 1360s are absent at the Muran settlement. Probably, the Golden Horde coins from the Numismatic Department of National Library in Paris were found at the Muran settlement in the end of the nineteenth century.

729–740

Authors: Pochekaev R.Yu.

Research objectives: An analysis of the evolution of the land-law institution of soyurghal which was applied during the 15th–19th centuries in the Chinggisid and non-Chinggisid states that arose after the disintegration of the Mongol Empire and its uluses. This work is an attempt to clarify the reasons behind the preservation of this imperial legal institution during the post-imperial period, along with the points of commonality and differences which emerged during its evolution in the different states and regions of Asia. Research materials: This research is based on wide range of historical and legal sources with information on soyurghal and its evolution. There are yarliks (or firmans) of monarchs (patents and letters), historical chronicles, along with treatises on the political and administrative structure of post-imperial states. The author analyses the documents of the Kazan, Crimean, Bukharan, and Khivan khanates, as well as Kashgharia, the states of Aq-Koyunlu and Qara-Kouynlu, Savafid Iran, and Mogul India. This research is also based on results of scholars who have already discussed soyurghal of the imperial and post-imperial period: M. Abduraimov, K.A. Antonova, A.M. Belenitskiy, P.P. Ivanov, A.K.S. Lambton, V.F. Minorskiy, Sh.F. Mukhamed’yarov, I.P. Petrushevskiy, M.A. Usmanov, etc. The novelty of the study: The presented article is the first attempt to compare the evolution of institution of soyurghal based on a wide range of sources from different states and epochs to clarify basic trends of this evolution and find the reasons for using different categories of soyurghal in different states to a greater or lesser extent. Research results: The author finds that during the 15th–19th centuries the institution of soyurghal had three meanings: land investiture for vassals (state and military officers), land investiture for state officers and clergy, and lastly a grant from the monarch to his subject in general. These different kinds of soyurghal were used in all states which were analyzed in the article. The conclusion is that this land-law institution was used in fact throughout the whole area of the former Mongol Empire and that this imperial legal tradition was preserved during the period after the disintegration of the empire itself.

766–782

Authors: Ilyushin B.A.

Research objectives: An investigation of the participation of Tatars in the service of Moscow in the wars with the Polish and Swedish states in the years after the Smuta (1613–1618). Research materials: This study is based on the data of the official order books, as well as some act materials. The novelty and the results of the research: The study of the particular subject of Tatar service in these wars helps us to understand their place in the armed forces of the state of Moscow during the military-political crisis which continued after the enthronement of the first Romanov. This category of troops took an active part in repelling the raids of Poles and Ukrainian Cossacks while simultaneously containing Swedish aggression. Having considered some episodes, it was possible to either discover or make informed assumptions about the number of Tatars and their proportion in the Russian military contingents, their combat missions, command, and variety of Tatar units. The considered sources allow us to speak about a one-time participation of two thousand Tatars in the wars with the Poles and Swedes (excluding groups with mixed composition). They took part in most of the important military activities of those years, and regarding their presence in the army, they usually comprised 15–28% of the entire force (in some cases they could be less, or much more). It is possible to speak confidently about emergence in these years of a practice of service of units by “halves”. Serving Tatars participated in defensive and offensive operations, in capturing prisoners of war, battles with small enemy units. These functions were similar to those performed by Russian nobles. The academic novelty of our research emerges from its being the first detailed examination in historiography on the participation of the serving Tatars in the wars of 1613–1618 and makes a number of conclusions about their contribution to the defense of the state of Moscow.

807–828

Authors: Tishin V.V.

The present paper does not aim to be so much a review as a commentary on the 2015 book by Roman P. Khrapachevsky dedicated to the publication of translations of the fragments from Chinese sources of the 10th–14th centuries about the tribes known under the names of Tatar and Mongol. The book under review, in the opinion of the author of the paper, is a significant contribution to the study of the nomadic peoples of Inner Asia in Russian historiography and provides a very useful instrument for researchers who are not fluent in Chinese. Without touching on topic of the quality of translations given by Khrapachevsky, it could be noted that some research sections and references drew some comments. In particular, the author of the review considers uncertain some of linguistic identifications made by Khrapachevsky relating to the bearers of certain ethnonyms. This fact, accordingly, makes any following findings questionable. In addition, according to the author of the paper, the methodology for the reconstruction of non-Chinese words and names deserves a more fundamental justification as a whole. At the same time, as is pointed out, these aspects are too complicated in themselves and, in any case, would be of a debatable nature, something which makes this book of Khrapachevsky additionally important for their further development. The main observation about the book relates to its relatively scanty bibliographic apparatus, which, according to this reviewer, was reflected by the lack of depth of the book’s commentary. In general, the book fulfilled its main task, providing Russian-speaking researchers, both historians and linguists, with new material for further studies of the history of Inner Asia.

855–860

Authors: Giniyatullina L.S.

The 200th anniversary of the birth of the outstanding Tatar scholar and enlightener Shigabutdin Marjani was celebrated in 2018. Indeed, it was declared the year of Marjani by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Tatarstan Rustam Minnikhanov. During the past year, books were published while academic forums, round tables, exhibitions, lectures and public educational events were organized in honor of the educator. The International Research Conference, “The Academic Heritage and Social Activities of Sh. Marjani,” (September 20–21, 2018) and the exhibition, “Shigabutdin Marjani. Tatar Character,” occupied a prominent place among the series of events dedicated to the year of Marjani in Tatarstan. The Marjani Institute of History organized the conference and exhibition with the support of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Tatarstan and the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences. The conference was attended by both domestic historians and prominent foreign researchers. In total, the program of the event included four thematic sections and a round table on the history of the Tatars abroad. The exhibition was held in the exhibition hall “Manege.” In addition to manuscripts and prints, the exhibition featured a gallery of portraits of Marjani and calligraphic works dedicated to the great Tatar theologian. It is necessary to note the visit of the delegation of public and political figures and researchers of Tatarstan to Uzbekistan to participate in events dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of Sh. Marjani (October 15–19, 2018). In Tashkent, a meeting was held with the administration and staff of the Abu Reyhan Biruni Institute of Oriental Studies. A presentation of research publications from the Marjani Institute of History and the academic journal “Golden Horde Review” was also held during the visit. On November 21, 2018 in Kazan, on the shore of Lake Kaban, the grand unveiling of the Shigabutdin Marjani monument took place. On November 29, 2018 a delegation from Kazan visited the city of Helsinki in Finland to participate in the conference dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the scholar’s birth.

452–471

Authors: Golev K.

Research objectives: The aim of the present paper is to examine the phenomenon of Bulgarophilia which was a recognizable pattern in the activities of the Cuman-Qïpchaq tribes of the Balkans during the late 12th and first half of the 13th century. The author seeks to answer the question: what were the factors that shaped the persistent Cuman support of the newly established Second Bulgarian Empire against various adversaries, such as Byzantium, the Latin Empire of Constantinople and the Kingdom of Hungary? Research materials: The present paper is based on various sources. The material of primary importance for the analysis of the Cuman-Qïpchaq activities in the Balkans is extracted from the Byzantine chronicles as well as from the Latin and French sources for the Crusaders on the Balkans. The data for the Cumans in the Rus’ letopisi, Persian chronicles and other Islamic sources are used as comparative material. Despite their diverse nature, all these sources share one similar feature – they do not place the history of the Cuman-Qïpchaqs at the center of the narrative and usually touch upon it only when the nomads were involved in the affairs of their sedentary neighbors. Thus, the picture of the Cuman-Qïpchaq activities in certain regions in general (and in the Balkans in particular) is inevitably fragmented and incomplete not only on the pages of the individual chronicles, but also in the entire medieval historiographical traditions in which they are found. Therefore, in order to draw a complete analysis of the Cuman-Qïpchaq presence in the Balkans, a comparative approach towards the diverse source base is adopted. The novelty of this study: The present text is the first one to identify and define the phenomenon of Bulgarophilia demonstrated by the Cumans during their activities on the Balkans at the end of the 12th and first half of the 13th century. It is also among the first research works that put the data for the Cuman presence in the Balkans in a broad comparative perspective, using additional sources for the history of these nomads in the Pontic Steppes as well as Central Asia. Research results: The consistent pattern of Cuman support for the Bulgarian military activities in Southeastern Europe is not viewed as a result of a certain emotional affection of the Cuman elite, but rather as a consequence of purely objective and material considerations. Bulgarophilia is examined and interpreted in the context of the general historiographical concept for the development of a balance between the Cuman-Qïpchaqs and their sedentary neighbors.

489–503

Authors: Akhundova F.N.

Objective: The disclosure of the nature of the relations of the Turkic-Mongol khans with the Sufi sheikhs and the reason for the establishment of these relations. Research materials: The Persian and Arabic sources, with the compositions of Ruzbikhan Khunji Isfaqani, al-Qashani, Hamd Allah Qazvini, Vassaf, Fadl Allah Rashid al-Din, and Ismail b. Bazzaz in particular being carefully compared in their modern translations. Results and novelty of the research: As a result of the analysis of sources, the author revealed the most important episodes in the spiritual life of the Hulaguid and the Golden Horde’s Turkic-Mongol khans. It becomes clear that Mongol power not only provoked an unprecedented rise of Sufism, but was itself an active participant in this process. It is obvious that despite the ethnic environment and native religion, the Turkic-Mongols, who subdued territories in the Middle East and Central Asia, were definitely inclined to Sufism. The matter is not only apparent in the centralized politics of empire which reflected on the administrative-political rule of uluses, but also in the spiritual views of the representatives of the Ruling House. During the research, the author also considered issues of political situations in the context of which certain episodes from the life of the Mongol khans took place. Meticulous study of the sources gave the opportunity of finding numerous interesting facts from the history of Mongol rule.

528–536

Authors: Karpov S.P.

Research objectives: To clarify the circumstances around the beginning of the Time of Troubles in the Golden Horde in 1359–1360, the overthrow of Kulpa Khan and the coup d’etat of Navruz Khan. Research materials: The author analyzes the whole body of Russian chronicles that mention this event, and for the first time ever publishes a unique text of the Venetian notary Benedetto Bianco, who reported this event. The article contains both the original text in Latin from the cartulary of acts kept in the Venetian State Archive in Italy, and the Russian translation of the source. The novelty and results of the research: In general, the published document confirms and clarifies the account in Russian chronicles that Navruz’s coup occurred in the winter of 1360 and was the result of a conspiracy of the Horde’s nobility. As a result of the coup, Kulpa, his two sons and the emirs supporting him died. In addition to the exact date of the coup, Benedetto Bianco’s record also reveals interesting details about the patronage of Kulpa to Christians, apparently the Catholic monastic orders active in those years in the Golden Horde and the Italian merchants who traded there. The notary’s record vividly portrays the circumstances of the coup that occurred in the steppe, perhaps during a campaign, a journey or hunting trip, rather than at the khan’s residence. Being in the center of events, Bianco is accurate on details and dates, which further increases the value of his description. Both after Navruz’s coup and before it, Tana’s trading post was continuously being rebuilt and settled, still recovering after the long break of the 1340–50s. Transactions for the purpose of acquiring real estate, land and houses, in Tana occupy an important place in the acts of Benedetto Bianco.

551–568

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

Research objective: To analyze historical sources and modern studies of the rule of Ulugh Muhammad’s sons in the Khanate of Kazan. Research materials: On the basis of study of a wide range of sources (the Russian chronicles, books of official orders in the Russian state, ambassadorial documents, historical acts, the Turko-Tatar narrative sources, notes of foreigner visitors, etc.) and specialized modern research works, the author of this article reveals the problems of representation of the Khanate of Kazan’s history during the period of Ulugh Muhammad’s sons’ rule. Research results and novelty: The author gave a special place in the research methodology to textological and hermeneutic analysis. Due to this, the author managed not only to verify the information of various sources, but also to interpret certain historical information on the basis of the context of sources that were considered authentic in that era. The author of the article is inclined to think that the succession of power from Ulugh Muhammad to Mahmud was legitimate. He clarifies the chronological framework of the rule and political status of the first Kazan khans, criticizes the arguments of modern historians, and puts forward a hypothesis about the rule in Kazan of Mustafa bin Ulugh Muhammad. As a result of the research, the author managed to adjust the perception of political history of the Khanate of Kazan during the rule of Ulugh Muhammad’s sons.

579–595

Authors: Khrapunov N.I.

Research objective: This paper analyses a little-known source, the account of British traveller William Tooke, describing his journey though Russia in 1785, which supplies information on the Crimea and the Crimean Khanate. Research materials: This paper addresses Tooke’s letters to the editor of the London-based Gentleman’s Magazine – a source previously not used by Russian scholarship. This was the first publication which informed a British audience about the Crimea after its first joining to Russia. Research novelty and results: This paper reveals that Tooke received his information on the Crimea primarily from the account of the employee of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vasilii Zuev, who visited it in 1782. The British author then added to it the data excerpted from the work by Swedish Johann Thunmann, and also his own information gathered from Russian sources. Tooke’s letters allow one to understand the beginnings of the research investigation of the Crimea, the European intellectuals’ ways of understanding the region’s economic potential and approaches to its development, their approaches to sources, the stereotypes burdening their understanding of the area and its culture, and the information on the distant northern Black Sea area obtained by European society in the period in question. Tooke’s work is a good example of the transfer of ideas between Russia and Western Europe, when the Crimea was not only the subject of learning but also a kind of “mirror” which allowed those who researched it to understand their own culture in a deeper way.

618–634

Authors: Ivanov V.A.

Objectives: To show how modern historians perceive and interpret the history of nomads of the Golden Horde regarding whom the main sources of information are archaeological sources. Materials of the research: This article is based on the results of a critical discourse analysis of the publications by contemporary source-study researchers. Their work expounds to some extent the history of the Mongol conquest of the nomads of Dasht-i-Kipchak and highlights their role and place in the administrative and political system of the Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi). Results and novelty of the research: A paradoxical situation has developed in the modern historiography of the Golden Horde. The history of the Golden Horde is studied by historians and archaeologists – representatives of two related disciplines that study the same theme, that is the history of human society. However, they study this theme using different methods and based on different sources. The absence of a mutual correlation between the results obtained and conclusions based on them leads to the fact that in parallel historical and archaeological studies of the Golden Horde, parallel images of this state are often created, often contradicting each other. This is particularly evident in the publications dedicated to the nomads of Dasht-i-Kipchak, who, firstly, became one of the first targets of the Mongol conquest in Eurasia; secondly, they also became the main population of the Golden Horde. The mechanistic reading of medieval narratives without source criticism leads to a situation in historical studies which sees the geography of the dwelling area of nomads (the Örberli, the Kuns, the Kangli) and the direction of the Mongol invasion of Dasht-i-Kipchak scattered in space. Insufficient correlation of archaeological and historical data (extracted from narratives) deprives the existing historical reconstructions of objectivity and denies the interested reader of an adequate understanding.

644–655

Authors: Maslyuzhenko D.N, Tataurov S.F.

The publication of the results of the archaeological research of the Isker ancient settlement in 1988 and 1993 undoubtedly represents one of the most anticipated events for all specialists in the history and archaeology of the Siberian Tatars of the late Middle Ages. This monument represents the archaeological remains of the capital’s center of the Siberian Khanate – the town of Isker – also known as Sibir and Kashlyk. It has been studied for more than a hundred years and the publication of the results is scattered across numerous papers in dozens of collections of articles, while archaeological materials are kept in several museums, including some outside the Russian Federation. All this significantly complicates the real study of this archaeological site and its role in the history of the Siberian Turkic-Tatar statehood. The book under review is divided into three conditional and very uneven parts. The first part, analyzing written sources, was written by V.V. Trepavlov, who managed to both inscribe this town in the context of Siberian history of the 13th–16th centuries and demonstrate its continuity with the previous political center – Chimgi-Tura. The second part, based on archaeological materials, was written by A.P. Zykov, who correlated archaeological research materials of 1988 and 1993 with the results of previous works. In the opinion of reviewers, the main weakness of authors’ concepts lies precisely in this part, since it does not fit with the first part of the book. Finally, the third part of the book, written by P.A. Kosintsev, examines the controversial issues of the economic reconstruction of the Siberian Tatars of the late Middle Ages. The reviewers recognize the relevance of this publication, but they believe that some of the shortcomings of the archaeological methodology will complicate its actual use and many of the conclusions drawn will be further contested.

664–666

Authors: Gibatdinov M.M.

The Third international Conference “Tatarstan – Japan: History and Perspectives of Relations” was the result of international research cooperation between the Marjani Institute of History and Institute for North East Asian Research (NEAR) of the University of Shimane and was held in Kazan as the part of official program of the Year of Japan in Russia. Among the traditional topics of conference: the cultural contacts between Tatarstan and Japan, the history of Tatar migration in the Far East, the role of Tatars in the dialogue between Japan and Muslims, the promotion of Islam in Japan, ancient metallurgy and “Tatara” steel casting technology, along with ancient and medieval sources about Tatars. This year, the agenda of conference was enlarged by analyses of bilateral business cooperation, and such new topics as the role of Kazan as the center of Orthodox missionary activity in the Orient (translation of sacred texts to the Japanese and Chinese languages, proselytizing activity and the impact of Russian missioners on the development of Sinology and Japanology in Russia, etc.).

224–237

Authors: Kradin N.N.

In the Transbaikalia territory, unique archaeological sites belonging to the Mongol Empire period are found – the town of Khirkhira and the palace of Kondui. They were already known as early as the 18th century and were excavated in the mid-20th century by S.V. Kiselev. The summarized research results were published in a book, “Ancient Mongolian Towns” (1965). The results of recent investigations open up the new prospects for research. Purpose – the article is an attempt to ascertain who was the initiator of construction of Mongol Empire towns of the Transbaikalia territory. Research materials – summarized results of the archaeological excavations of the towns and manor complexes on the Transbaikalia, along with published written sources on the Mongolian history. Research novelty comprises the statement of results of the new archaeological studies as well as in the localization of the territories in Transbaikalia and contiguous zones of the Inner Mongolia (Hailar) assigned to the brothers of Chinggis Khan, Qasar and Tämügä (Otchi Noyan), and their descendant. Research results indicate that the urbanization processes in the Transbaikalia territory of the Mongol Empire are related to key times in the establishment and rise of the Chinggis Khan’s Empire. The towns appeared here in the 13th century and likely persisted into the 14th century. The town of Khirkhira is traditionally interpreted to be the residence of Yesünggü, son of Qasar. The mention of his name on the “Chinggis’s stone” is the rationale behind this assertion. The written sources afford opportunity to clarify some new, previously unknown details of his biography and the dating of the stele.

252–263

Authors: Filin N.A., Gibadullin I.R., Boev E.B.

Research objectives: To examine the ancient Persian tradition of legitimation of rule by the first Mongol dynasties. Materials: Medieval primary source texts of Abu ʾl-Qasim Ferdowsi, Nizam al-Mulk, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi, Rashid al-Din, and Abu Bakr Qalandar. Results and novelty of the research: Despite the fact that before the adoption of Islam, the Mongol dynasties used their own forms of legitimization of their rule, based on gaining the right to power and special grace from the heavenly god, Tengri, the Ilkhanids (Hulaguids), ruling in the Near and Middle East (from 1256 to 1353), and the Jochid rulers of various states in the Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Western Siberia (from the 13th to 17th century), who ruled in the Desht-i Qipchaq, actively used elements of the ancient Persian concept of power, based on special divine light bestowed upon the ruler – Farr. This was accompanied by images of just rulers and the use of traditional titulature of Iranian rulers – the “king” (Shah) and the “king of kings” (Shah-i Shahan). Testimonies to this practice can be found both in the works of philosophers and historians of the period of these Mongol dynasties (for example, in the “Qalandar-name” of Abu Bakr Qalandar) and in the illustrations of the “Shahnameh” from the 14th century that portrayed the Mongolian khans in the image of ancient Persian heroes. This means that, on the one hand, the first Mongol dynasties felt some lack of legitimacy in the conquered territories, on the other hand that there was a desire of the autochthonous elites to link the new rulers to the political culture that had existed before their arrival. As concerns the Jochids, what can be asserted is the spread of an Iranian type of political culture after the migration of urban populations from the area of Persia into the Desht-i-Qipchaq.

283–303

Authors: Moiseev M.V.

Objective: A study of the historical arguments of Ivan the Terrible in the context of diplomatic relations with the Tatar states. Research materials: A compilation of diplomatic letters of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilievich preserved in the books of ambassadorial records. Results and scientific novelty: The author used the whole compilation of the preserved diplomatic correspondence for the first time ever with the purpose of reconstructing a viewpoint of the Russian ruling elite. He established that the revision of the “Horde’s legacy” was started during the regency of Elena Glinskaya. By using real facts and precedents, while also allowing themselves at times to commit direct forgery, Moscow intellectuals created a picture of the past in which the Volga region belonged to the Russian princes even before the Mongol conquest. The fact that Tatar nobility engaged in swearing an oath to Moscow princes and later to the tsar played an important role in the system of argumentation employed by Muscovy. The author shows that the “Tmutarakan legend” of the origin of Astrakhan was used only inside the country and was necessary to convince the boyars on the necessity of its conquest. Choosing arguments, Russian diplomats relied on rhetorical formulas and images that were understandable within the Tatar cultural environment, and this led to the development of other ways of substantiating foreign policy claims which differed from those that were employed in European countries.

312–341

Authors: Akchurin M.M., Isheev M.R., Belyakov A.V., Abdurakhmanov T.A., Salikhov R.R.

Objective: To study the three Tatar genealogies dating back to the Golden Horde’s Prince Isenei Kypchatsky. Research materials: This study has detected three genealogies. One of them from the Saratov regional archive belongs to the Tatars of Khvalynsky district, bearing the surname Kipchaksky. Two others, from the Astrakhan regional archive and the Russian State Archives of Ancient Acts respectively, belong to those Kasimov Tatars bearing the surname Tonkachev. These genealogies have been studied in detail. The persons mentioned in them were then compared with individuals mentioned in documentary sources. Results and novelty of the research: It was found that a number of the princes’ and murzas’ surnames of Kasimov Tatar groupings – such as Tonkachevs (Tonkacheevs), Bulushevs, Alyshevs, Kikichevs, Emashevs as well as of the Kypchatsky Tarars of Saratov governorship – are related. They originate from the princes of the Kypchak tribe – one of the most influential in the Golden Horde. These princes had the special status of Karachi begs. DNA tests have revealed the possibility of the relationship of these Tatar surnames with modern carriers of the Kypchak ethnonym, which strongly supports the Kypchak origin of the Golden Horde’s princes from this clan.

370–392

Authors: Belyakov A.V.

Objective: To offer commentary on the information provided by the continuator of Ötemish-Hajji’s “Qara Tavarikh” and to make an attempt to establish the time and place of the text’s composition. Materials: A number of details of the continuation can be verified by comparison with the documents from the archives of the Posolsky order. In addition, the continuation’s structure and its information allow us to delineate a circle of individuals among whom the manuscript circulated and by whom this addition was written. Results and novelty of the research: The author here establishes that the “Qara Tavarikh’s” continuation, most likely, was written in the 1660s to 1680s in Yaroslavl, among the retinue of the widows of the Siberian prince, Altanay b. Kuchum. This was a kind of reaction to the conversion of their children and relatives to Eastern Orthodoxy in the mid-17th century. Therefore, the continuation contains extensive historical and genealogical information and at the same time represents a polemical work. Using the example of the prince, Hansyuer b. Ali, the anonymous continuator creates the image of a true Muslim under the conditions of the onset of Orthodoxy upon Islam in Russia in the middle to second half of the 17th century. We are faced with a collective epitaph of the entire Siberian Shibanid family, which is interrupted with Kuchum’s grandchildren. According to the author or the commissioner of the continuation, the Shibanids could not be Orthodox. Despite some distortions of real events through silence and subjective assessments of certain historical personalities, the source under consideration, on the whole, quite truthfully represents the events of the 17th century connected with the residence of the descendants of the Siberian khan Kuchum in Muscovy.

409–421

Authors: Khamidova Ch.I..

Research objectives and materials: The article presents a section of the translation from Persian of the second chapter of the manuscript. This part contains a genealogical tree of Abaqa Khan, Geikhatu Khan, Arghun Khan, and Ghazan Khan (containing their descendants as they were known to Rashid al-Din). Research results and novelty: The results of translation and analyses of the text of the manuscript could serve in various purposes such as the study of Rashid al-Din’s heritage, the Golden Horde’s history, the genealogical history of the Chinggisid rulers and their descendants, etc. The translation of the manuscript has heretofore never been published in part or fully.

439–442

Authors: Uzelac A.

On May 10–11 2018, the Faculty of Arts of the University of Szeged hosted an annual gathering of researchers dealing with the history of the Mongol Empire. The event was organized by several members of the Turkological Research group of MTASZTE (“Hungarian Academy of Sciences – University of Szeged”). Its main goal was the reassessment of a role that the international networks of merchants, and their activities along the Silk Roads, played in the Mongol Empire. The event saw the gathering of eleven participants from Hungary, United Kingdom, Germany, Bulgaria, Serbia, Israel, China and Japan, who covered a wide range of topics and source materials. The working language was English. On the first day, István Vásáry, professor emeritus of Eötvös Loránd University and keynote speaker of the event, held his lecture: The Mongol Period: Heyday of the Silk Roads. The other participants’ presentations, divided into four sessions, and followed by long, exhaustive and fruitful discussions, took place the next day. The presented papers will be published in one of the volumes of the internationally recognized journal Acta Orientalia Academiae Hungaricae in 2019.