Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine

427-434

Authors: A Mariana, MN Shukor, Norhazizi H Muhd, Nurlemsha B Intan, TM Ho

Objective To document movement patterns, home range, nesting behaviour and social organization of 5 individuals (3 males and 2 females) of a common species of tree-shrew, Tupaia glis (T. glis) surrounding houses of otoacariasis cases. Methods Each shrew was fitted with a transmitter chip radio-collar which operates between the frequencies of 154.13 MHz to 154.21 MHz. Each transmitter was then tracked with a Portable Telemetry Receiver (Sirtrack, New Zealand) fitted with a 3-element Yagi antenna. Collared shrews were located using standard methods of ground-based triangulation. Each location was taken from at least 2 directional fixes and a minimum of 3 compass bearings. Fixes were taken hourly for each collared individual from the time of emergence from nest (beginning of activity) till time of entry into the nest (end of activity) every day for 5 to 7 continuous days. Three series of radio telemetry observations were carried out. The bearings, time and positions of an observer were recorded and later plotted on a graph paper in order to derive coordinates of the collared animal. [These coordinates then analyzed using Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 1.03)]. Results Nests were found in a jack fruit tree, long bushes, and 2 houses. Daily telemetry detections demonstrated 2 individuals of different sex having nests (or a nest) in the same house. All shrews emerged from and returned to their nests between 0601 to 0659 hours and 1901 to 1959 hours, respectively. Both the time of exit from and entry into nest were the same between sexes (P>0.05). Their average total active period was 4.90 to 7.00 hours with a total daily travel distant of 270 m to 382 m. A male and a female shrew can move as far as 3 285 m and 4 591 m, respectively. Active movements of T. glis were during daytime. They regularly entered some houses in the area during day and night except for one individual which visited during daytime only. The sizes of home range and core area for the shrews were 2.00–3.40 ha and 0.05–0.42 ha, respectively. Generally, the mean home range size of females was 20.8% larger than that of males. Females covered a 15.4% slightly higher daily movement range compared to males. Conclusions This is the first radio telemetry study in Malaysia to monitor movements and home range of shrews carrying ticks on their body. It demonstrates that shrews are potential carriers of ticks from wild into the houses and their compounds based on their total active periods spent moving around from fruit orchards, secondary forest, plantations and other vegetations to trees in compound of 4 to 7 houses and vice versa. There are also evidences showing shrews have close contact with humans.

439-442

Authors: Amin Mansour, Kalantar Enayat, Mohammad-Saeid Neda, Ahsan Behzad

Objective To evaluate the antibacterial effect and physicochemical properties of essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss. Methods Antibacterial activity of essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss was assessed by agar disc diffusion and minimal inhibitory concentration(MIC) was tested by E test. Results The essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss was effective on pathogenic bacteria particularly Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The MIC values of the target cultures ranged from 0.39 mg/mL to 1.56 mg/mL. The physicochemical properties like effects of pH, temperature, detergents, and enzymes on the activity of essential oil from Zataria multiflora Boiss were also determined. The essential oil was quite stable to temperature as tested against S. aureus and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The essential oil was very stable over a wide range of pH. The antibacterial activity of essential oil was insensitive to various protein-denaturing detergents (Such as Tween 80, Tween 20, Triton 100, etc.) and enzymes (namely proteinase K, trypsin, lipase, and lysosyme). Conclusions A potential use of the essential oil from Zataria multiflora Boiss is suggested. More studies including further purification, mass spectra, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and evaluation of toxicity are needed for confirmation of this suggestion.

448-450

Authors: Onyebiguwa Patrick Goddey Nmorsi, Clement Isaac, Igho Benjamin Igbinosa, Duncan Ogheneocovo Umukoro, Dafe Palmer Aitaikuru

Objective To investigated the prevalence of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiens in an endemic focus of Nigeria, as it relates to age, sex and occupational differences. Methods A total of 474 human subjects were screened using card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis kit. Positive samples were further investigated for parasite positivity in blood/serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Results Of the 474 screened, 44(9.3%) were seropositive with seroprevalence of 22(9.6%) in Urhouka, 14(9.5%) in Umeghe and 8(7.9%) for Ugonu. The number of seropositives, observed for weakly, moderately and strongly positives for the three communities were 4, 7 and 11 in Urhouka, 4, 5 and 5 in Umeghe and 3, 2 and 3 in Ugonu respectively. Among the 16 volunteers with detected parasite in their blood, 4 of them were weakly positive, 5 of them were moderately positive and 7 of them strongly positive. 4 volunteers from Urhouka community were found parasites in their CSF and they were all strongly positive. The difference between the seroprevalence of males and females was not statistically significant (OR=1.14, 95% CI=0.37–3.4, P>0.05). The prevalence difference between age group 21–30 years old and the youngest and oldest age groups was statistically significant (OR=3.5, 95% CI=1.08–12.57, P<0.05) but not significant for other age categories (P>0.05). It was observed that farmers had significantly higher prevalence of HAT infection as well as greater risk of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection than inhabitants with other occupations (OR=3.25, 95% CI=0.99–11.79, P<0.05). Conclusions Human activities such as farming and visits to the river have been identified as major risk factors to HAT. Also the breakdown of HAT control program has been advanced for the rise in HAT in Abraka, an endemic focus in Nigeria.

454-457

Authors: PN Krishnan, R Saraswathi, C Dilip, N Ramarao

Objective To formulate and evaluate acyclovir microcapsules using bakers yeast. Methods Acyclovir, pretreated yeast and deionised water were taken at a volumetric ratio of 1:2:4 respectively. This suspension was agitated in a magnetic stirrer at 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, and 40°C for 4 hours. The suspension was then centrifuged for 10 minutes at 2 000 rpm. The supernatant solution was decanted and the cells were washed 5 times with deionised water. Then the suspended drug entrapped yeast cells were dried in a lyophillizer for 48 hours. The yield was noted. Results The first four formulations were done with 200 mg of the drug, followed by 400 mg for the next four formulations and 800 mg the last four formulations. SEM showed that the surface of the microcapsules was intact, with no burst characteristics. FTIR showed no interaction between acyclovir and the cell wall. DSC showed that the peak was within the standard values. The mean particle size for all the samples was 8 μm in diameter. The dissolution studies were done for all the twelve samples and showed a Fickian model of diffusion. Conclusions From the results it is inferred that the samples prepared at 40°C (FY-4, FY-8, FY-12) show better entrapment and release. So these samples are formulated in the form of a suspension and compared with marketed acyclovir suspension using HPLC technique. The formulated suspensions with FY-4, FY-8 and FY-12 shows drug content in accordance with the standards of the pharmacopoeial limits.

461-464

Authors: Momohmumuni Audu, Adikwu Michael Umale, Ibezim Emmanuel Chinnedu

Objective To formulate and evaluate the application of PEGylated mucin in oral bioadhesive drug (OBD) delivery system. Methods The bioadhesive strength of different formulation ratios of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and mucin was evaluated by tensiometry. Co polymer matrices containing mucin and PEG (PEGylated mucin) in the following ratios of 1:1 (A), 2:1 (B), 1:2 (C), 0:1 (D) and 1:0 (E) were prepared by co-precipitation. Microparticles were prepared from the matrices using a size reduction technique. Five different samples were prepared using direct mixtures in the appropriate solvenfs having mucin and PEG ratios of 1:1, 2:1, 1:2, 0:1, 1:0 and labeled as (A-E). The matrices were evaluated for their flow properties and the in vitro bioadhesion characteristics of the samples were examined. Results The range of flow rates of the matrices was 1.35–2.23 g/sec. The angle of repose was in the range of 37.3–39.9 degree. The bulk and tapped densities were within the ranges of 0.41–0.49. The Hausner's quotient (HQ) were 1.12, 1.24, 1.14, 1.25 and 1.2 for matrix batches A-E respectively, The bioadhesive strength of polymer matrices appeared to be directly related to amount of mucin. The order of bioadhesive strength is 2:1 > 1:1 > 1:0 > 1:2 > 0:1 of PEG: mucin in both simulated intestine fluid (SIF) and simulated gastrointestinal fluid (SGF). The physical properties of the micrometrics properties of the matrices were within the accepted values. Conclusions OBD preparation containing PEGylated mucin can be prepared by direct compression and be used in drug delivery to the oral cavity.

471-474

Authors: Abhishek K Jain, V Ravichandran, Madhvi Sisodiya, RK Agrawal

Objective To synthesis 2–substituted–4,5–diphenyl–N–alkyl imidazole derivatives. and evaluate their antibacterial activity. Methods A mixture of benzil (10 mmol) and ammonium acetate (0.1 mol) (immediately fused) in glacial acetic acid (25 mL) was stirred at 80–100 °C for 1 h under nitrogen atmosphere (to prevent incorporation of any atmospheric impurities and moisture). Substituted aldehydes (10 mmol) in glacial acetic acid (5 mL) was added drop-wise over a period of 15–20 min at the same temperature and stirred for another 4 h, the progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC test using ethyl acetate as eluent. The newly synthesized compounds were characterized by IR, 1HNMR, 13CNMR and by mass spectroscopy. Results All the synthesized compounds were confirmed by spectroscopical techniques and evaluated for antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus(S. aurius), Bacilus subtilus (B. subtilus), and Escheria coli (E. coli). These compounds showed antibacterial activity (zone of inhibition) against S. aurius ranged from 3 mm to 9 mmin diameter, B. subtilus, 4–8 mm, and E. coli 5–12 mm. Out of 2a-2e, only 2a and 2b showed some sort of activity but none of them had considerable activity compared with that of the standard. Conclusions All the synthesized compounds show moderate activity against the tested bacteria S. aurius, B. subtilus, and E. coli. So, further structural modification is necessary to improve the antibacterial action of 2-substituted-4,5-diphenyl-N-alkyl imidazole derivatives.

479-482

Authors: GT Jombo, S Akpan, J Epoke, Akaa P Denen, F Odey

Objective To ascertain the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) recovered from surgical site infections (SSIs). Methods The study was retrospective in nature and was compiled for a period of five years (1st February, 2004–31st January, 2009). Data were generated from the culture of post-operative wound swab specimens by the microbiology laboratory of University of Calabar Teaching Hospital. Relevant information from the patients' records was compiled, such as age, gender, type of surgical procedure, microorganisms recovered and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. Obtained data was analysed by using Epi Info 6 statistical software. Results Of the 4 533 wound swab specimens processed, 673 were culture positive and P. aeruginosa was recovered from 13.1% of the culture positive specimens with its rate of recovery decreasing with age progression (P< 0.05) but with no gender difference (P> 0.05). Most of the P. aeruginosa isolates were from general surgery wards and least from orthopaedic wards. Ofloxacin, ceftriaxone and augmentin were the most active antibiotics while ampicillin, tetracycline and cotrimoxazole were the least active antibiotics, with no antibiotic having a 100% activity against the organism. Conclusions In view of the high resistance displayed by P. aeruginosa recovered from SSIs, adequate antiseptic procedures should be entrenched to avoid colonization of surgical wounds by this microorganism as well as others with similar sensitivity profile. Ofloxacin, ceftriaxone and augmentin may be considered for prevention of P.aeruginosa infection.

486-490

Authors: Neeraj Tiwari, Vineeta Kandpal, Ajoy Tewari, K. Ram Mohan Rao, VS Tolia

Objective To investigate the presence of statistically significant geographical clusters of tuberculosis (TB) using Geographical Information System and spatial scan statistics in Dehradun, India. Methods The spatial scan statistic implemented with a software program, SaTScan v6.1, was used to test the presence of statistically significant spatial clusters of TB and to identify their approximate locations (P< 0.05 for primary clusters and P<0.1 for secondary clusters). Geographical Information System was used for geographical analysis. Results Significant high rate spatial clusters were identified in seven wards of the Dehradun Municipal area. Conclusions There is sufficient evidence about the existence of statistically significant TB clusters in seven wards of Dehradun, India. The purely spatial scan statistics methodology used in this study has a potential use in surveillance of TB for detecting the true clusters of the disease.

494-495

Authors: Krishnananda Prabhu, Gummadi Maheshwar Reddy, Anjali Rao

Objective To measure and compare pre- and post-treatment levels of serum total glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in stage IV cervical cancer patients and erythrocytic glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and plasma ceruloplasmin (CP) and total GST in stage IV oral cancer patients and to correlate with the response to treatment during a two year follow-up period in respective cancer groups. Methods Thirty-four biopsy-proven stage IV oral cancer and cervical cancer patients (n=17 in each group) who underwent same mode of treatment were chosen for this study. Erythrocytic MDA and GSH, CP and serum total GST were measured in all patients before the onset of treatment, and the GST level was only measured in cervical cancer patients after radiotherapy. The levels were compared with their respective prognosis in 2 years. Results Oral cancer patients with higher pretreatment levels of GSH, CP and GST came with cancer recurrence within 2 years after the onset of treatment. Cervical cancer patients with higher post radiotherapy levels of serum total GST had higher recurrence tate. Conclusions This study indicates there may be a role for these antioxidant parameters namely GST, GSH, CP in assessment of long term survival and prognosis of cancer patients.

499-504

Authors: Charuai Suwanbamrung

In order to understand the community capacity for sustainable community-based dengue prevention and control, this paper proposes the approach of a previous study about meaning and domains of dengue prevention and control, an assessment tool and a community capacity building model for sustainable community-based dengue prevention and control in the Southern Thailand. A study of dengue community capacity domains was conducted by utilizing a qualitative method, whereby ten initial community domains were identified by means of a literature review, in-depth interviews of sixty community leaders, and eight focus group discussions with sixty non-leaders in four sub-districts of southern Thailand. In the final study, there were 14 identifiable domains in leaders group and 11 domains in non-leaders. The resulting dengue community capacity-assessment tool (DCCAT) consisted of two parts: one for leaders (DCCAT-L) and the other for non-leaders (DCCAT-NL). DCCAT-L was composed of 115 items within 14 domains and 83 items within 11 domains for the DCCAT-NL. The key domains of leaders and non-leaders had a partial overlap of domains such as critical situation management, personal leadership, health care provider capacity, needs assessment, senses of community, leader group networking, communication of dengue information, community leadership, religious capacity, leader group and community networking, resource mobilization, dengue working group, community participation, and continuing activities. The application of the new tool consisted of five steps: 1) community preparation, 2) assessment, 3) a community hearing meeting, 4) interventions, and 5) conclusion and improvement step. All stakeholders in the community should use the new tool based on a clear understanding of the measurement objectives, the desired outcomes, resources available and characteristics of their community. If communities need to develop and build dengue community capacity, then the designed pre-post intervention assessments or serial assessments are essential.