Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

616–635

Authors: Jackson T.N.

Research objective: The purpose of this study is to collect, translate and comment on the information about Tatars contained in Icelandic annals. Research materials: Icelandic annals are amply published but scarcely studied. There are ten medieval Icelandic annals. The general view is that the annals began to be written in Iceland at the end of the thirteenth century. From this time onward, annual entries appear, while texts relating to earlier events go back to one common redaction, much of the information of which is reproduced in each of the existing annals. All of them have the same chronological system and common sources. Results and novelty of the research: Such a study has never been carried out before. The author studies in good detail ten entries from 1202 to 1398, including references to Tatars. The analysis demonstrates that these data permeate the annals in different ways: some references owe their appearance to the acquaintance of the annalists with the works of European chronicle writers, some go back to oral information spread in Icelandic Norwegian clerical circles, some are a result of rumors circulated in Europe and brought to the Scandinavian North by pilgrims returning from Rome, and some were invented by annalists themselves. Nevertheless, these ten mentions relate to very significant moments in the Mongol interaction with the Christian West: the beginning of the Tatar expansion in 1202, the conquest of Hungary by Tatars in 1241, the presence of Mongol ambassadors at the Second Lyon Council of 1274, the conquest of the Holy Land by the Mongols in 1299, and a number of others.

652–662

Authors: Galimov T.R., Mirgaleev I.M.

Objective: Based on a systematic method of historical information and a partial historical reconstruction using narrative sources, the objective here is to cast doubt on the interpretation of the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480 as the liberation of Rus’ian lands from dependence on the Horde. Research materials: A number of synchronous annalistic sources and acts containing information about the event. This material obviously contradicts the Soviet interpretation of the issue, which has remained popular in modern historiography. In addition, modern domestic and foreign studies also contain voluminous materials that do not allow us to consider this event as a release from Horde. Results and novelty of the research: The published sources do not allow us to consider the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480 as an event that put an end to the dependence of the Rus’ian lands on the Horde. Several obvious circumstances provide evidence for the judgment advanced here. Firstly, the chronicles attribute the resolution of this conflict to divine power and describe this event in a way that does not allow us to consider it as a victory for either the Rus’ian or the Horde’s military forces. Secondly, the continued payment of tribute to the Tatar khanates indicates both the long-term dependence of the Rus’ian lands and the preservation of the internal unity of the post-Horde political space which continued to pose a threat to the Moscow state. The research results are shared by modern experts on the history of the Golden Horde and the Tatar Khanates.

674–686

Authors: Adygamov R.K.

Objective: “Mustafad al'-akhbar fi Ahwali Qazan wa Bulgar” is one of the most important studies of Tatar history. In fact, Sh. Marjani was the first to attempt an academic description of the Volga Bulgarian and Tatar history, as well as the history of related and neighboring peoples. Materials of the research: For this purpose, Sh. Marjani used a large array of various sources covering the period from the tenth to the eighteenth century. In addition to edited and manuscript materials, the author also used epitaphs and coins. Thus, Marjani was not limited to quoting excerpts from historical works, but compared their contents, specified dates, and characterized events and personalities. Results and novelty of the research: An analysis of his sources has made it possible to divide them into material, written, and oral ones. Material sources are represented by gravestones and coins. Written sources are the works of Arabic, Persian and Turkic historians and geographers, various reference books and dictionaries, as well as theological works. In turn, the oral testimonies and statements of the Tatar imams about various events and issues of theology represent a third type of sources employed by Marjani.

720–732

Authors: Polekhov S.V., Zaytsev I.V.

Research objectives: This article offers an edition and a source study of the letters of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray I to Jerzy Mikołajewicz Radziwiłł (Jurgis Radvila), the voivode of Kiev, written in 1512–1513. Research materials: The originals of the letters preserved in the Princes Czartoryski Library in Cracow and the collection of Ignacy Onacewicz at the Institute of Russian Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Pushkin House) in St. Petersburg, subsidiary materials, edited and unedited, from the archival and library collections of Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Warsaw. Results and novelty of the research: It is established that two original letters of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray I to Jerzy Mikołajewicz Radziwiłł (Jurgis Radvila), the voivode of Kiev (1511–1514), are preserved in the Czartoryski Library in Cracow (Ms. 2893) and Ignacy Onacewicz’s collection in the Institute of Russian Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences (the Pushkin House) in St. Petersburg. It is demonstrated that they were written on March 14th, 1512, and September 21st, 1513, and their contents are connected with the international relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Both of them were kept in the Radziwiłł family archive until the nineteenth century. The texts of both letters are published for the first time, accompanied with detailed descriptions of the originals, a contextualization of them as sources, and provided with commentary.

744–759

Authors: Rustemov O.D, Stepanov E.N.

The purpose of this work is to determine the role of the koine of the Bakhchisaray’s capital and its environs in the formation of the supra-dialect koine and the literary (standard) Crimean Tatar language in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The period that we are considering in this article is quite indicative precisely in terms of the development of the Crimean Tatar literary language and its oral form – the supra-dialect koine. This time was the last stage of the fully functioning Crimean language before the Crimean Khanate lost its independence totally (1783). Phonological, lexical and grammatical norms which determined the vector of further development of the literary language of the Crimean Tatars, based mainly on the Bakhchisaray urban koine, had already crystallized in that epoch’s language. The material of this study consists of legal documents. They provide the best way to trace the processes of the formation of norms in the general Crimean supra-dialect koine, which based on the capital’s koine. Of particular value are the records of Sharia courts of the Crimean kadiys, on the one hand, and the khan’s yarliks along with letters, on the other. Both types of documents demonstrate two literary styles that were forming by different Turkic linguo-cultural traditions: that of the Golden Horde and the Crimean proper, the latter being a regional one which was influenced by the Ottoman language. The fact of lingual archaism and the mixing the phonetic, lexical and grammatical traditions of different Turkic languages in the texts of the manuscripts of official and business writing testify to the mixed character of norms in the Bakhchisaray, pre-dialect koine norms, and the norms of the literary language on the basis of the interaction of homogeneous Turkic idioms (Cumanian and Seljukian) with a small share of heterogeneous, mostly lexical, borrowings.

784–797

Authors: Gallyamova A.G.

Objective: To reflect on the increasing significance of the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of August 9, 1944 “About the Condition and Measures of Improving Mass-Political and Ideological Work in the Tatar Party Organization” for the development of Tatar history and culture. Research materials: This article is based on the documents from federal and republican archives, along with academic publications on the subject. Results and novelty of the research: The analysis of the development of the historiography of the Middle Ages in the Tatar ASSR and the work of Golden Horde specialists demonstrates that in post-Soviet historiography, the significance of the August 1944 Decree for the development of Tatar humanities is exaggerated. The official attempts to channel the development of the Tatar historical school were, in many respects, of the nature of formal rhetoric. Among the Tatar intelligentsia, academic discourse persisted even during the period of late Stalinism, not to mention the period of the “thaw”. This was convincingly evidenced by the unfolding in the early 1950s of the discussion taking place in the pages of the journal “Voprosy istorii” (Questions of History), and the achievements of M.G. Safargaliev, Sh.F. Mukhamedyarov, M.A. Usmanov, and A.G. Mukhamadiev in the study of Golden Horde issues. However, the work of humanities scholars was of the nature of a chamber, and it did not have a wide outreach to the public. Mass consciousness was formed by Moscow-produced textbooks, which were printed in millions of copies. The medieval history of the Tatars was presented in the form of an ominous yoke, an absolute evil. In this regard, the effectiveness of the influence of the August 1944 Decree should be associated not so much with the development of the humanities as with the formation of stereotypes in the public consciousness, in which the assessment of the Golden Horde was a negative one.

807–810

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

On June 26–28, 2019, Kazan hosted the Sixth International Golden Horde Forum “Pax Tatarica: The Genesis and Heritage of Statehood of the Golden Horde”, dedicated to the 750th anniversary of the founding of the Golden Horde. The forum was organized by the M.A. Usmanov Center for Research of the Golden Horde and the Tatar Khanates of the Marjani Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan. Since 2009, this event has been the most important conference on the history of the Golden Horde and its successor states, gathering leading researchers in this field of knowledge. The 2019 forum was attended by about 100 specialists from 15 countries. This year, the following questions became the focus of attention among historians: problems of the political history of the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates; issues of source study (new sources, textology, problems of translation and interpretation of texts); historiography, related terminological problems and perception of the historical heritage of the Golden Horde; diplomacy and military affairs; the Pax Tatarica and medieval globalization; state and social structure; Russian-Horde relations; and everyday life in the Tatar khanates. The following round tables were organized within the framework of the Sixth International Golden Horde Forum: “The concept of ‘Tatar’ in medieval sources: the historical fate of the name/term and its carriers”; “State monetary policy and issues of the organization of monetary affairs and money circulation in the Chinggisid states (13th–15th centuries)”; “The Russian Ulus: issues of subordination of the Rus’ian lands in the Golden Horde”; “Via Tatarica: The Golden Horde on the Great Silk Road”. Based on the results of the conferences, a general resolution of the forum was formed and approved.

416–433

Authors: Uzelac A.

Research objectives: This article offers a critical overview of the political position and destiny of the Tatar lands between the Danube Delta and the Lower Dniester in the timespan between the death of Özbeg (1313–1341), khan of the Golden Horde, and the migrations of the Tatars of Aktau to the Balkans in 1398–1399. Attention is also dedicated to the organization of these territories, their nomadic character, and to the local Tatar leaders: Prince Atlamish, and his successors Demetrius/Temur (Demetrius princeps Tartarorum), Kutlubuga and Hadjibey. The article discusses the relations between the Tatars and the Ottomans during the last two decades of the fourteenth century as well. Research materials: Latin, Slavic, Asian and Greek contemporary sources and archaeological material, related to this region. Results and novelty of the research: The Tatars in the Danube-Dniester interfluve lost their political and military supremacy over the neighboring lands during the age of the so-called Great Turmoil in the Golden Horde. The external pressure from the Hungarian Kingdom, Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Principality of Moldavia led to the gradual reduction of their territory to the area that included Budjak (the southwestern tract of Ukraine and south Moldova) and northern Dobrudja. Nonetheless, the Tatars in the West of the Dniester, remained independent and continued to play a significant role in the regional events. There are also indications that they continued to recognize the authority of the khans of the Golden Horde until the end of the fourteenth century. Some of these facts are either unrecognized or neglected in contemporary historical studies.

461–484

Authors: Donina L.N., Suslova S.V.

Research objectives: Identification of the Jochid jewelry traditions in Kazan Tatar filigree art based on the example of the ethnospecific element of the traditional Tatar culture – almond-shaped filigree earrings. Research materials: The main sources are museum and field ethnographic and archaeological materials collected by the authors as part of largescale academic projects. These are the “Historical and Ethnographic Atlas of the Tatar People” (1971–1990) and “Jewelry of the Turkic Peoples of Eurasia: General and Specific” (Russian Foundation for Basic Research №13-06-97056, 2013–2014 yy.). Results and novelty of the research: For the first time, this article carried out a retrospective historical-ethnological and technological analysis of almond-shaped filigree earrings, which are a characteristic marker of Tatar national culture. This made it possible to attribute the origins of some early medieval archaeological and ethnographic artifacts. The origins of the formation of earrings are largely associated with the Golden Horde period of the ethnocultural history of the region’s people, especially the Kazan Tatars. The technological and ornamental traditions of the Golden Horde filigree are preserved at all stages of their formation. The earliest examples of Jochid filigree are found in the fourteenth-century almond-shaped earrings from the burial ground in the vicinity of Bulghar. Modern macrophotography allowed us to determine the manufacturing technology of medieval archaeological artifacts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries – the close analogues of Kazan Tatar earrings. This was the filigree tracery (gimp) without base. It reflects the process of integrating the Golden Horde elements (curl in one turn) and technological methods (openwork filigree without base) into the jewelry art of the Kazan Tatars through the traditions of Volga Bulgarian filigree. The Golden Horde filigree traditions also prevail in the massive almond-shaped head ornaments from the 16th–18th centuries. Such large forms of jewelry correspond to the monumental forms of the urban costume of the medieval nobility rather than to nomadic traditions. The technological traditions of the Jochid spiral filigree in the Tatar almond-shaped earrings, as is the case with Kazan-Tatar filigree art in general, continued until the beginning of the twentieth century.

497–508

Authors: Tataurov S.F.

Research objectives: The article discusses the problem of searching and studying one of the most interesting historical complexes of the late Middle Ages in the Tomsk Cis-Ob region – the Toyanov town. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Toyanov town was the ethnic and political center of the Turkic-speaking population living in the area. Research materials: Archaeological search of the monument began in the second half of the nineteenth century and continues to the present. Several monuments of the late Middle Ages in the left bank of the Tom River were discovered and explored within this period. The materials found during excavations allow us to connect the history of the Tomsk Cis-Ob region of this time with the events in the entire forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia and the Turkic-Tatar state formations – in particular with the Siberian Khanate. Unfortunately, materials from the excavations are scattered and have not been published to date. Results and novelty of the research: This article analyzes recent articles on the Toyanov town and presents materials from the M.P. Gryaznov’s archive containing the results of the 1924 excavations of the burial ground “Toyanov town” stored in the F.M. Dostoevsky Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography of Omsk State University. These materials indicate a certain proximity between the Toyanov town and other complexes of the Siberian Khanate.

524–544

Authors: Penskoy V.V., Penskaya T.M.

Research objectives: To study the causes of the aggravation of Russian-Crimean relations in the middle of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the full-scale Russian-Crimean war of 1552–1577 (“The War of the Two Tsars”) in the context of international relations in Eastern Europe in the 1540s–50s. Research materials: A large collection of documentary and narrative sources of Russian, Lithuanian and Turkish origin (chronicles, razryad and ambassadorial books, act materials). Results and novelty of the research: In June 1552, Crimean Khan Devlet-Giray I tried to capture the Russian border town of Tula. This campaign was the beginning of the 25-year undeclared Russian-Crimean War – the period of the most acute, “hot” confrontation between the Russian state and the Crimean Khanate. The war was the result of the accumulation of a critical mass of disagreements between Russia and the Crimea in the previous decades. Crimea was not enthusiastic about the strengthening of Moscow at the expense of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Moscow was against attempts to reestablish the Golden Horde under the control of the Crimean ruling dynasty. The impossibility of reconciling the fundamentally conflicting political interests of the two states led to a transition from an alliance at the beginning of the sixteenth century to open conflict in the middle of the century. The immediate reasons for the transition from the cold war to the hot war were the attempts of Crimea to establish its control over Kazan and Astrakhan and, subsequently, over the Nogai Horde. These actions met opposition from Moscow which began a war with Kazan in order to restore its influence there. The desire to support Kazan led to the campaign of Devlet Giray against Tula in the summer of 1552.

568–592

Authors: Gulevich V.P.

Research objectives: To introduce the Russian translation of a little-known Spanish source about the Ottoman conquests of Caffa (1475), and Kilia and Belgorod (1484), into scholarly circulation. Research materials: Spanish sources on the history of the Golden Horde and the Crimea are very few. Therefore, the Chronicle of the Turks is an important and interesting source for this region dating from the late Middle Ages. The present article contains an introductory essay both about the author of the Chronicle of the Turks, Antonio Herrera de Tordesillas, and the features of his work. The next section contains the original Spanish text describing the capture by the Ottomans of Caffa (1475), Kilia and Belgorod (1484); as well as its Russian translation. This effort represents the first translation of the source into Russian and its introduction into scholarly circulation. Results and novelty of the research: The main source for the author on the fall of Caffa, and Kilia and Belgorod, was the work of the Italian chronicler, Giovanni Maria Angiolello, though it was creatively revised by A. Herrera de Tordesillas. The author covers the events in the Crimea on the eve of the Ottoman conquest, relations between the Genoese and Tatars, and the mood of Caffa’s inhabitants. He describes the preparation of the Turkish fleet, the siege of the city and its treacherous surrender to the Turkish military, the deception of the Turks and their atrocities against residents who had been surrendered to the mercy of the victors, their plundering, the separation of families, the enslavement of children, and the deportation of the Italian populace to Istanbul. He mentions the capture of other Italian colonies in Crimea, although without providing details. He further describes the Ottoman capture of the strategically important cities of the northwestern Black Sea Region – Kilia and Belgorod in 1484. Here, the author describes the episodes in a concise form, since, compared with the fall of Caffa, these events had a much lower resonance in Europe. Some features of the text by Antonio Herrera de Tordesillas suggest that he did not provide all the information that he actually had available.

603–606

Authors: Gibadullin I.

On June 15, 2019, a round table was held entitled “Medieval Turkic-Tatar Theological Thought: Sources and Interpretation” which saw the presentation of the publication of the religious and didactic work of the Golden Horde-era “Nahj al-Faradis” by Mahmud al-Bulgari. In the light of the presentation and round table, it is worth noting the wide interest of the scientific and theological world in relation to the sources introduced into scholarly circulation, which allow us not only to clarify the historical aspects, but also deepen the understanding of the Islamic world of the Golden Horde’s period. According to historians participating in the round table, since “Nahj al-Faradis” by Mahmoud al-Bulgari is a source on the history of the religious life of the Golden Horde, its Russian translation allows us to understand the perception of fourteenth-century theologians of the Golden Horde’s dynastic strife and social processes during this period.

208–224

Authors: Hautala R.

Research objectives: The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the Golden Horde since the second half of the 13th century. Research materials: These sources seem to be important primarily because they include “internal” sources, namely, reports of Catholic missionaries compiled in the territory of the Golden Horde and sent to the leadership of the Mendicant orders (mainly the Franciscan Order of the Friars Minor) in Europe. The body of writings also includes “external” sources, that is, papal bulls addressed to the Golden Horde rulers, the missionaries themselves in the dominions of these rulers, and their subjects in the steppes and cities of the Golden Horde whom the Roman curia regarded as immediate targets for their missionary activity. In addition, narrative descriptions of the Franciscan chroniclers who received information either directly from missionaries returning from the Golden Horde, or through their unpreserved letters, are discussed here as “external” Latin sources. The novelty of this study stems from its comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls, and Franciscan chronicles, which allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history. Research results: In particular, the author resorted to a comparison of missionary and Eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek, and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author sought to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tried to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article.

242– 253

Authors: Kaziev E.V.

Objective: To ascertain the time and circumstances of the As people’s incorporation into the service of the Mongol Empire’s supreme rulers. Research materials: Biographies of the As military commanders found in the section of “Biographies of the Famous” in the Chinese “History of the Yüan Dynasty” (Yuan Shi) as well as information from the Franciscan friars’ accounts of their missions in the Mongol Empire. Results and novelty of the research: For the first time, a single study summarizes the available information from written sources about the time and circumstances of the As people’s joining Mongol service. It has been ascertained that the Franciscan John of Marignolli’s information on the As people’s service among the Mongols since the time of Chinggis Khan is not confirmed by information from other synchronous written sources which does not allow one to advance anything further than assumptions on this matter. In addition, this study exposes factual errors contained in A.I. Ivanov’s Russian translation of the As military commanders’ biographies presented in the “History of the Yuan Dynasty” which led to the incorrect definition in the academic tradition of the time and circumstances of the As people’s incorporation into Mongol service. The original text of the mentioned Chinese source makes it possible to assert that the As people entered Mongol service only under Ögödei Khan during the Western campaign after having sworn allegiance to the Chinggisid Prince Möngke. All other arguments for the time-frame of this subjugation are not confirmed in the sources and remain only assumptions, which, however, have been presented as facts in the academic tradition.

266–282

Authors: Petrov P.N., Kamishev A.M.

At present, all historians and archaeologists concerned with historical events of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries connected to the city of Taraz use its name only in reference to the medieval site whose occupation layers are located under buildings of the modern city of Taraz in Kazakhstan. The name of Yangi Taraz is also attributed to this medieval site. This surprising identification arose in connection to studying of monetary production and its circulation from Taraz in the period of interest. By studying the volume of coins issues in Taraz city in the last third of the thirteenth century and establishing that monetary production was very considerable even on the scale of the entire state, there arose a question – Why are these coins not found in occupation layers in the territory of Taraz studied by archaeologists at all? And in that case where was the Yangi Taraz of the Mongol period located? The purposes of the present article are: 1) To identify the locations of high concentration the Chagataid’s coins of Taraz – both copper and silver ones – that is, to determine the location of the Taraz monetary production in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; 2) To make an attempt to understand the notions of modern scholarly historians regarding the functioning of Taraz during this period. The study of numismatic finds from the territory of the Talas valley in Kyrgyzstan made it possible to locate a cluster of coins originating from the cities of Taraz, Yangi Taraz and Ordu Bazar near the medieval site of Pokrovsk II. Numismatic finds both from Pokrovsk II and Taraz in Kazakhstan are considered in detail in this article. Thus, it was established that the location of the mint of Yangi Taraz was if not for the most part located at Pokrovsk II, then it was at least somewhere nearby. Narrative sources report that there were two cities of Taraz – Ulug Taraz and Kami Taraz. Some mistakes of different authors in their historical interpretations and conclusions have been caused by the existence of two closely located cities with same name of Taraz in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

295–317

Authors: Tishin V.V.

Research objectives: This article discusses some issues related to the problem of the relationship between the concepts of the “Golden Horde”, the “White Horde”, and the “Blue Horde”, with an emphasis on the term “horde” itself – both as a scientific definition and as a historical concept related to the phonetic forms in which it situated in the sources. The author proposes to reveal the original meaning of the term ordo ~ orda and to outline the stages of expansion of its semantics with the delineation of semantic fields. Research materials: The article may be considered largely as a kind of commentary on the research of recent years. Since all materials on the affected issues have been known to researchers for a long time, the selection of sources looks proverbially traditional. These are Mongolic, Chinese, Latin, Muslim (Arabic and Persian), and Old Russian texts containing the word ordo in its various forms. The author did not use the whole body of sources, but rather the most illustrative materials in his opinion. Mostly, the linguistic material was employed which comprises the lexical basis for researching specific languages. Research results and novelty: In the process of researching the contexts of using of the term ordo ~ orda in various sources and different orthographic variants (corresponding to phonetic ones), the author came to the following contention. Secondary senses reflecting one of the aspects of the original sense evolved from the basic meaning recorded among thirteenth-century Mongols – “the abiding-place of a ruler, his family, his entourage, and all the attendants”. Since the development took place in parallel, this did not exclude the words being used with different intended meanings in the same texts, which can be revealed only as a result of the analysis of the context. The contexts of the use of the term in the sources make it possible to assert that there was a process of expansion of the term’s original meaning, reflected in the perception of different authors being representatives of foreign cultures. This occurs in the period after the middle of the fourteenth century, being directly caused by the events of political history of the Jochid ulus as it was plunged into an era of trouble. Also, the emergence of additional senses associated with the concept of territory was the result of a comprehension of the word in related contexts within the worldview specific for sedentary cultures. The author of the article accepts the point to identity the terms “Golden Horde” and “White Horde”, both contrasted with the concept “Blue Horde”, originally associated respectively with the designation of the domains of the descendants of Batu in the western part, and the descendants of Urdu in the eastern part, of the Jochid ulus. In addition, it is recognized that the hypothesis on the correlation of these color markers with the traditional geosymbolism of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples is not sufficiently substantiated although it is theoretically permissible. The fact that the term ordo ~ orda with both color markers of “gold” and “white” was more often associated with the sense “qan’s tent”, corresponds with the source data on similar epithets for tents of different qans. Historically, the possession of such tent was typical for certain leaders, at least in the Mongolian tradition, but from an early age it had come to be claimed as the attribute of the rulers of the Jochid ulus primarily. Nonetheless, a solid identification of the relationship between the concepts “golden” and “white” requires special research.

333–338

Authors: Zaytsev I.V.

Objective: This paper attempts to ascertain the etymology of the Russian word tavrui in connection with the possibility of the existence of tugra among the Kazan khans. Research materials: Scribal materials of the Kazan Uyezd in 1565–1568. Results and novelty of the research: The author shows that the Russian word tavrui, mentioned in the scribal book in relation to the khan's signs of ownership, despite its apparent proximity to the word for "brand", may in fact be etymologically related to the Turkic word Togrul "Falcon".

351–371

Authors: Trepavlov V.V.

Objective: To study the historical circumstances of the emergence in the 15th century Dašt-i Kipchak of a politonym, Shibans, and to define the circumstances which have prevented its successful transformation into an ethnonym. Research materials: This article is based on the works of Central Asian, Persian and European authors of the 15th–17th centuries (Abu-l-Ghazi, Ötemish Hajji, Fadlallah Isfahani, Khondemir, Mahmud b. Wali, Siegmund Herberstein, Paulus Iovius Novocomensis, etc.), the Russian chronicles, materials of diplomatic correspondence during the same period, and folklore texts. Results and novelty of the research: Within the 15th-century Dašt-i Kipchak, in the concentration of the Turkic nomad tribes known under the general name of Uzbeks, the community which has received the name of Shibans began to be formed from the population of the ulus of Shiban and the subjects of the Shibanid Khans. Similar to the communities of the Kazakhs and the Nogays formed at the same time, it had a potential for transformation from a fragile set of Turkic clans into a more stable ethno-social structure – something which would result in the forming of its own state, inside of which there would exist a special ethnic community with own (Shiban) identity. However, a number of historical circumstances, such as the strengthening of the Kazakhs, the separation of the Nogays from the former Uzbek khanate, and the massive migration of the Uzbeks to Central Asia, did not allow this process to ultimately unfold. In the new places of residence, in Transoxiana and Khwarezm, the Uzbek identity prevailed among the newly arrived migrants (along with former tribal ones). The designation of Shibans at first remained there for the subjects of Muhammad Shaybani Khan and of the Shibanid dynasty, but rather quickly it fell out of use.

392–400

Authors: Halperin Ch.J.

The latest monograph by Iurii Vasil’evich Seleznev of Voronezh State University, Kartiny ordynskogo iga, discusses the social and political interaction of Rus’ princes with the Juchid ulus (the Horde) during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. By examining trips by Rus’ princes to and from the Horde and the amount of time they spent at the Horde, the activities of Rus’ princes who became in-laws of the khans by marrying Chingissid princesses, Rus’ princely attendance at Horde quriltais (assemblies), how the Rus’ princes greeted khans who crossed Rus’ territory, Rus’ princely service in Horde military campaigns, possible Rus’ princely membership in the Horde’s Imperial Guard (keshig), the reception of Horde envoys by the Rus’ princes and the dispatch of Rus’ envoys to the Horde, and the judicial processes that led to the execution of Rus’ princes at Sarai or in the Horde’s nomadic camp, Seleznev demonstrates conclusively that the Rus’ princes had the opportunity to become familiar with Horde military strategy and tactics, Horde ceremonial and ritual, and Horde political culture. However, the question of the extent of Tatar influence on Rus’ political institutions and identity remains a difficult one.

8–21

Authors: Uzelac A.

Research objectives: An analysis of the background, circumstances and factors that led to the conclusion of the alliance between the Cuman fugitives from the Pontic Steppes and the Latin Empire of Constantinople, as well as its dissolution. Attention is also cast on some chronological issues and the participation of the Cumans in Frankish military campaigns. Research materials: Contemporary sources in which this episode is detailed, among them the most important being the works of Byzantine historian George Akropolites, French chronicler Alberic (Aubry) de Trois-Fontaines and another French author, Jean de Joinville, biographer of the French King Louis IX (1226–1270). Results and novelty of the study: The alliance concluded in Constantinople in the fall of 1239 between the Cumans and the Franks was without precedent in the western world. Together with the Cumans, the Frankish knights participated in a ceremony, performed according to nomadic customs. The ‘blood brotherhood’ was concluded between the two parties, and the alliance was consequently strengthened through the marital ties. Unlike Hungary, where the attempts to integrate the Cumans ended in failure due to the strong cultural and social differences between the newcomers and the local population, as well as internal instability, the Frankish elite in Constantinople was unanimous in their decision to compromise with the nomads, and there was no opposition to such an alliance. However, despite the fact that the Cumans were accepted in an exceptionally friendly manner, were held in high regard by the Frankish leadership and were allowed to retain their customs, the alliance did not last for long and was destined to be a failure. This was due to the complex internal and external factors such as lack of resources for the sustenance of the immigrants, the Mongol threat that loomed over the Latin Empire, and the untimely death of the Cuman leader Iona in 1241, whose personal authority was a guarantee of the alliance.

37–54

Authors: Kuleshov Yu.A.

Research objectives: To discuss, as far as possible, types of offensive weapons used in the Golden Horde. Materials: Combat flails are considered the research materials as a category of weapons that have not previously come into the analysis of specialists. Results and novelty of the research: Among researchers, it is generally accepted that combat flails were the exclusively weapons of non-professional soldiers who fought on foot. Accordingly, horsemen did not need to use such weapon. Moreover, as the results of the study showed, combat flails were part of the larger armaments of the Golden Horde’s warriors. In their hands it was a very formidable weapon. The novelty of the study lies in the expansion of our ideas about the weapons and warfare of the Golden Horde.

77–89

Authors: Vorotyntsev L.V.

Research objectives: A study of questions about the time of the emergence of the “Tatar” trade route (“Via Tatarica”), the influence of external factors and internal political processes in the ulus of Jochi on the formation and development of this trade route, and also identifying the causes of the decline and termination of the “Tatar Way”. Research materials: Travel notes of European diplomats and travelers such as John of Plano Carpini, William of Rubruck, Ambrogio Contarini and Guillebert de Lannoy, “Pratica della mercatura” of Francesco Pegolotti, “Descriptio veteris et novae Poloniae” of Stanisław Sarnicki, “Armenian History” of Kirakos of Ganjak, “History” of Vassaf, Compendium of Chronicles” of Rashid al-Din, Abu'l-Fida’s “Sketch of the Countries”, Gustynskaya Chronicle, notarial and administrative acts of the Republic of Genoa. Results and novelty of the research: This article for the first time ever considers the question of the time of formation and the stages of development of one of the transit trade routes of the northeastern Black Sea coast, which passed through the lands of the Golden Horde and the Galician-Volyn principality to the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, called the “Tatar Way” (“Via Tatarica”) in Western sources. The problem of dating the emergence of the “Tatar Way” is considered in the context of the military-political processes in the border areas between Galicia and the Golden Horde and also the relations between the Jochid ulus and the Ilkhanid state in the 1240–1290s. Based on an analysis of the sources, the author concludes that the end of the thirteenth to the beginning of the fourteenth century can be considered the most likely time of the formation of the “Tatar Way”. In the first half of the fourteenth century, it was one of the main transit trade routes passing through the territory of the Golden Horde. With the outbreak of internecine strife in the ulus of Jochi and the military expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Moldavian Principality, which caused a long period of military-political instability in the northwestern Black Sea region, the “Via Tatarica” gradually declined and finally ceased to exist in the first half of the fifteenth century.

115–130

Authors: Nagamine H.

Research objective: To analyze the issues concerning the manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg. To investigate the value of his work as a historical source, its sources and their influence on the historical perceptions of the author. Research materials: In the course of studying the manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg’s work, other historical sources were also analyzed: Chingīz-nāme/Qara Tavārīkh of Ötämish Ḥājī, ʻUmdet al-Akhbār of ‘Abd al-Ghaffār Qïrïmī, the anonymous Daftar-i Chingīz-nāme, in addition to specialized research on the history of the Jochids and the Later Jochid States. Results and novelty of the research: An analysis of the three manuscripts of Qādir ‘Alī Beg’s work suggests that unlike those of St. Petersburg and Kazan, the Paris manuscript belonged to another person. From the analysis of the work, we found that the relationship between the Jochids and the Manghïts was strengthened through the relations of khan–beg/bī and marriage (quda-anda). In terms of the influence of this work on later periods, we noted the possibility that it influenced, either directly or indirectly, the Yusupov genealogy. In addition, in this work, in terms of historical recognition, the author tried to assert both the legitimacy and the identity of the Kasimov khanate using the “principle of Chinggisid”. Thus, the work inherited the tradition of Turco-Mongolian historiography being connected with general history which was prevalent after the composition of the Jāmiʻ al-Tawārīkh of Rashid al-Dīn. The author recognized the history of the Later Jochid States as continuing from the Jochids (the Mongol Empire) and considered the collapse of the Jochids not as a new epoch following the disappearance of the Jochid State, but as one of reorganization and changes within the ruling Jochid lineages. The historical recognition of the author is also deeply reflected in the order of dastans in the original. Although the author justified, or could not but justify, the domination of the Muscovite tsar over the Later Jochid States, the phrase “duty of salt and bread (tuz-ötmäk ḥaqqï)” well illustrates that the Kasimov Khanate actually accepted the domination of the “pagan” Muscovite tsar and theoretically legitimated this situation.

159–174

Authors: Chernyshov S.A.

Research objective: To consider the communication practices of Ivan the Terrible, his predecessors, Russian diplomats and other representatives of the supreme power of the Moscow tsardom in the 15th–16th centuries in the context of the legitimization of rights to certain territories and ideas about historical continuity in general. Research materials: The study was conducted on the basis of the analysis of the chronicles, charter and diplomatic materials, along with historical and ethnographic studies. Results and novelty of the research: The article “Historical Examples in the Letters of Ivan IV to the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde” (“Golden Horde Review”, 2018, no. 2) published by M.V. Moiseev, opens up broad opportunities for discussion about the positioning of the legitimacy of the supreme Moscow authorities in the period under consideration. The importance of this article is extremely difficult to overestimate since the scrupulous embedding of images and narratives of certain events in official documents is still rarely a separate research task. At the same time, having touched upon an important topic for Russian historiography, M.S. Moiseev leads the discussion in the direction of comparing the versions set forth in diplomatic or other official documents with the historical reality reconstructed with the use of other material. It is obvious that such a comparison would inevitably lead to the conclusion that the versions of events found in official documents are inconsistent – something which does, in fact, happen. More productive is the comparison of communication practices that the supreme Moscow authorities were developing with western, eastern and (no less important) intra-elite counterparties. The mention of that last group, in particular, makes it possible to take a fresh look at the thesis on the elite consensus on those or other versions of the annexation of the Volga region and the legitimization of the Moscow tsar. On the materials of diplomatic correspondence, chronicles, literary monuments and studies of historians, it is concluded that the positioning of the supreme Russian government differed significantly depending on the addressee’s relative position: in the west, east or inside the country. Starting to build a harmonious official version of the legitimization of the power of the Moscow tsar quite late, court intellectuals and Ivan the Terrible himself formulated at least three different full-fledged versions of the origins of the power of Moscow tsars from which they justified their right to occupy an important place among the Western and Eastern rulers: Augustus, Chinggis Khan and Christ.

185–192

Authors: Rustemov O.D.

The book under review is dedicated to the peculiarities of Crimean Tatar society, its traditions, class etiquette, rights and obligations of residents of the state, and other social issues, which are reflected in various documents. A large number of such documents exist, comprising historical treatises, travel records, testimonies of ambassadors of foreign countries, etc. The central place among these sources is occupied by the judicial registers of the Shari'a courts, called sijjils or qadiasker books. The sociological aspects of this study fall predominantly on the reign of Murad Giray Khan when many traditions and peculiarities of the way of life crystallized in the Crimea. In addition, the figure of Murad Giray Khan is attractive owing to the attempts at reforms that he undertook, foreseeing the death of his state. The political external and internal position of many Crimean khans was distinguished by its duality. It was based on their status as vassals of the Ottoman Sultans. However, the Crimean khans were descendants of a more ancient and formerly powerful Chinggisid dynasty, and therefore they were more legitimate in the Turkic world in terms of the power of their rule. With rare exceptions, among the Crimean khans there was always a vivid desire for the return of the former greatness and power of the house of Chinggis, something which was often combined with a desire for independence from the Sublime Porte. These internal aspirations at times led to acts of disobedience and even open military confrontations. Such was the case of Khan Mehmed II Giray, nicknamed Semin (the Fat), who laid siege to the Caffa’s garrison in 1577, but these manifestations of “self-will” were invariably suppressed both by the superior military power of the Porte and by intrigues, skillfully played by Istanbul grandees among the Crimean clan aristocracy, whose representatives often raised revolts against their own khans.