International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology

108-131

Authors: Melaku Alemu

There are many constraints that severely affect the global agricultural production and productivity which include the ever increasing of population growth, degradation of natural resources, climate changes and emerging pests. Among these factors, biotic constraints or pests are known to cause 25-50% or complete loss of plant production. Accordingly, various plant protection technologies have been deployed with the trend of focusing on the use modern biotechnological tools that are proven to be most effective and mandatory. The review covers a wide array of pest management methods ranging from the conventional biological control methods up to molecular breeding techniques. Furthermore, the application of new genetic engineering techniques fueled by new breakthroughs and innovations are the cornerstone of this review. Accordingly, the continuous increasing trend of GM crops cultivation in both crop type and hectare has urged many countries to deploy the technology as a key strategy to enhance their bioeconomy. In fact, plant protection is the discipline that immensely benefit from biotechnology than any other disciplines for ensuring food security and sustainable development. However, in order to fully exploit the enormous potential of biotechnology, appropriate biosafety regulatory frameworks and proper stewardship programs need to be effectively implemented. This integrated approach can promptly help respond to the ever-dynamic threat of pests and hence reliably combat food insecurity and ably contribute to sustainable development.

140-145

Authors: Prajina Neupane, Madhusudhan Adhikari, Manita Kumari Thapa, Astha Kiran Pandeya

Bio-floc technology is the blue revolution in aquaculture & new technique of enhancing water quality & utilizing feed wastes in the aquaculture system. It follows the concept of conversion of ammonium in addition to organic nitrogenous wastes into bacterial biomass in where heterotrophic bacterial growth is stimulated & nitrogen uptake through the production of microbial proteins is promoted by the addition of carbohydrates to the pond. Nitrogen generated by uneaten feed and excreta of cultured organisms is converted into proteinaceous feed available for those same organisms. This technique recycles nutrients & nitrogenous wastes by maintaining a high carbon: nitrogen ratio and provides essential & higher quality nutrition to the shrimps & fishes in achieving fast growth, lesser FCR & possibility to prevent diseases. Water requirement in BFT is extremely less & it is advantageous than the conventional system where there is continuous water & nutrient recycling, lower FCR. On the other hand, many challenges are existing in practicing bio-floc in Nepal as it requires frequent pond monitoring by the technical manpower. The choice of carbon source should be made wisely and correctly as the performance of fish and water quality in the bio-floc ponds depend highly upon carbon source. Further, vitamins required for fish may not be produced by microbes thus needed to identify them and supply through the feed. However, the practice of bio-floc technology will be proven worth for farmers in Nepal.

154-160

Authors: N.G. Ramesh Babu, Anupa Mary Aji

Alkaline protease enzymes are enzymes which can catalyze the process of proteolysis between the pH ranges from 8 to 12. Extracellular alkaline proteases are used as additives in detergent powders. In the present study, source of the organism was from a detergent contaminated area. The study has been carried out in Aeromonas hydrophila AH10 strain that produces protease enzyme with an alkaline pH optimum. The organism was a gram-negative rod with a protease enzyme activity of 0.385 ml/min. purification of the protease enzyme from the bacteria was carried out. This protease is suitable for use in alkaline detergent powders as well as in silver recovery process. The Aeromonas hydrophila strain AH10 gene encoding this high-alkaline protease was cloned and characterized.

170-178

Authors: Sunil Dulal, Rishi Ram Kattel

Eastern Chitwan of Nepal is the major banana producing hub. Farmers were categorized as small, medium and large banana producers on the basis of their banana cultivated land. Majority of the large famers had purchased banana insurance scheme. Altogether 150 sample households were selected on the basis of purposive simple random sampling to assess the resource use efficiency of banana farming and impact of insurance adoption in eastern Chitwan of Nepal in 2017. The primary data were collected by household survey using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interview and focus group discussion. The field survey showed that 50.58 percent respondents were male with average family size was 6.04. Only 10 percent of the sampled households were headed by female. Around 36 percent farm households had insured their banana. The B:C ratio of banana farming was 2.18. The research revealed that the farmers had an experience decreasing return to scale in banana production. Land preparation, suckers, labor and chemical fertilizer were the main factors that positively determined whereas the manure, irrigation, pesticide, and micronutrient had have negatively affected on banana production. Adoption of insurance scheme on banana farming had have positive effect on production of banana. It was estimated that the gross return will be increased by 0.012 percent in a farmer who had done insurance. The sampled farm failed to show their efficiency in using resources in banana production. There was further opportunity to increase banana production using more land preparation, suckers, chemical fertilizers and labor.

187-190

Authors: M.M. Hossain, K.M. Khalequzzaman, M.S. Alam, M.T.R. Mondal, M.M. Islam

The field experiment was conducted at Spices Research Centre, Shibganj, Bogura, Bangladesh during Rabi season of 2017-18 to study the color preference of Scirtothrips dorsalis in chilli. The treatments were T1= Blue trap @40 trap/ha; T2= Yellow trap @40 trap/ha; T3= White trap @40 trap/ha; T4= Green trap @40 trap/ha and T5= Pink trap @40 trap/ha. Among the color traps used, at 35 days after installation (DAI) of trap blue color attracted highest (8.44 thrips/ sq. inch area of trap) number of S. dorsalis adults followed by white (5.43 thrips/ sq. inch area of trap), yellow (4.30 thrips/ sq. inch area of trap), green (3.52 thrips/ sq. inch area of trap) and pink (3.40 thrips/ sq. inch area of trap) color. Blue coloured sticky trap also attracted comparatively a smaller number of beneficial insects and can be used for relative estimate of S. dorsalis population and also for monitoring and mass trapping as a component of IPM program.

199-204

Authors: RN Ahmed, MM Uddin, MA Haque, KS Ahmed

Bean pod borer, Maruca vitrata is a serious pest of bean which causes serious yield loss of bean and other leguminous crops. To evaluate the field efficacy of two microbial pathogens for the management of legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata F an experiment was carried out in the field laboratory of the Department of Entomology, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh during kharif season in 2016 on yard long bean plants. Entomopathogens viz. Bacillus thuringiensis and Beauveria bassiana were used @ 0.50, 1.00 & 1.50 g/L and 0.25, 0.50 & 0.75 g/L, respectively to conduct the experiment. These two entomopathogens showed significant effect on the management of bean pod borer in comparison to untreated control in the field in decreasing the flower (22.02, 29.72, 33.35% and 16.16, 24.26, 30.05% by Bt & Bb, respectively) and pod infestation (16.45, 25.69, 31.93% and 10.73, 21.57, 28.04% by Bt & Bb, respectively). These two pathogens showed a significant effect on the yield with increasing pod yield 10.65, 20.32, 26.25% and 7.69, 14.58, 21.79% by Bt & Bb, respectively of yard long bean. Besides, these both the two entomopathogens were almost similar to the effect of a widely used chemical insecticide Nitro 505 EC in managing pod borer in the field.

211-215

Authors: Abdul Samad Soomro, Shabana Naz Mazari, Muhammad Haroon Hulio, Junaid Ahmed Soomro, Ghulam Qadeer Junejo

The experiment was conducted at the field of Rice Research Institute Dokri, Larkana, Pakistan to evaluate the efficacy of different insecticides against Rice Leaf folder (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis) under field conditions, different insecticides were applied on recommended dose. The experiment was conducted in RCBD design with 3 Replications and 5 Treatments. The leaf damage and insect pest population were observed before spray and 1,3,5,7 and 14 days respectively. The results shown that all the treated plots reduced damage minimized insect pest population and increased yield at significant level compare to control. Minimum damage of leaves was recorded in T-03 Belt 480SC (3.76%) leaves/Plant compare to T-05 Control (28.96%) leaves/plant. The results revealed that the 1st application reduced population at significant level up to seven days but population started rebuilding among all treated plots Maximum control was observed in T-03 Notice 0.22/Plant on 5-DAA & 0.24/Plant on 7-DAA. Similarly, the 2nd application also produced desirable results against Rice leaf folder population at significant level among all treated plots except control plots. Maximum controlled was observed in T-3 Belt 480SC, 0.24, 0.5 and 0.54/plant in 5-DAA, 7-DAA and 14-DAA respectively. Maximum yield increase in T-03 Belt 480SC (20.47%), followed by T-01 Notice (19.21). Results shown that the pest appearance the time of booting caused more damage to flag leave, at the time of flowering reduced gain filling and ultimately yield losses were observed.

223-230

Authors: Sujan Chaudhary, Gyanu Thapa Magar, Shiv Nandan Sah, Sanju Parajuli

Ethnobotany is the study of ethnic plants of particular people living in particular place. It accommodates list, details and description of all those studied plants regarding with their various uses. Tharu people belong to one of the indigenous communities especially in Terai region of Nepal. Tharu people have been using these plant resources since 18th century. This study aims to identify ethnic plants of Tharu community of eastern Nepal and their uses in their daily lives. Enumeration of useful plants from Tharu ethnic community was conducted in four villages of Ramdhuni municipality of Sunsari district. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and household sampling technique were used for data collection. Plant specimens were collected and information regarding it was obtained from local Dhamis, Jhankris, farmers and old age people. This study reported thirty-seven useful plant species under 25 families. In total 37 species, 25 were recorded as medicinal plant, used to treat pneumonia, menstrual disorder, stones, piles, skin disease etc. Other plant species were used for food, fodder, timber, fiber and ceremonial/ religious activities. Most plant species (78.3%) were having multiple use value, and kept under more than one use category and few species (21.7%) with single use category. Trees (27.02%) and herbs (27.02%), both were dominant over grass, shrubs, climbers and creepers. This study has revealed that many plants species are being used by Tharu community of Eastern Nepal as their ethnic plants for medicine, food, fodder, ornament, material etc which needs to be more explored.

235-240

Authors: Sulav Dhakal, Susmita Panthi, BimalaKumariKhanal, Laxmi Pandey, Shiva Shankar Bhattarai

Greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), the honey comb moth, is the member of family pyralidae, considered as the serious pest of the bee industry, is also known for its plastics digesting ability. This research was carried out in two phases in the month of September- October & December- January. The data on change in weight of the plastics using digital balance and area of plastic consumed by the larvae was taken for 30 and 15 consecutive days in winter and summer respectively. From the statistical analysis the results found out; 8.4 mg, 2.4 mg & 1.6mg mean change in weight in the treatment T1, T2, T3 respectively; that the area of plastic consumed by the larvae was higher in plastics of 200 gauze i.e. smaller the gauze of plastic, greater the area consumed. The study revealed the similar change in weight of plastics within the range of 300-500 gauze which was lower than the change in weight of the natural feed, wax. Higher rate of plastic feeding was observed in summer as compared to winter.

1-6

Authors: Sadikshya Lamsal, Deepak Subedi, Krishna Kaphle

Buffalo rearing is major part of Nepalese agriculture and they are reared for milk, meat, draft power and manure. Buffaloes are the main source of milk production in Nepal producing about 65.3% of the total annual milk in the country. Different indigenous breeds such as Lime, Parkote and Gaddi as well as Indian Murrah and Nili Ravi are recorded in Nepal and they are raised in different management and production system. Different genetic and non-genetic factors cause variation in production and reproduction performance between these breeds and within these breeds also. Non genetic factors affecting the performance of these buffaloes are season of calving, parity, management practices, nutrition etc. In this paper, effect of parity on production traits such as colostrum period, lactation length, lactation yield and days to reach peak milk yield as well as reproduction traits such as calving interval, dry period and service period are reviewed. Thus, this paper after reviewing related articles from various journals, proceedings and magazines is aimed to evaluate the effect of parity on reproductive and production efficiency of buffaloes of Nepal. Though the performance of indigenous breed is generally considered low, there is high potential of these breeds under proper breeding and management programs.

14-20

Authors: Shraddha Patrabansh, Niranjan Parajuli, Vinay Kumar Jha

Antibiotic residues in meat are a serious public health concern as a result of its harmful effects on consumer health. This study aimed at estimating the residues levels of commonly used antibiotics (Tetracycline) in chicken samples using two analytical methods; Rapid Screening Kit and HPLC. Twenty chicken samples were collected from various meat shops of Kathmandu valley. Qualitative and semi-quantitative analyses with Quicking Tetracycline rapid Test kit, which detect tetracycline above 100 ppb in tissue revealed that two samples were positive for antibiotic residues in the chicken for tetracycline. The concentration of residues of tetracycline, which were positive in rapid test kit was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a UV detector (HPLC-UV). One muscle sample and one liver sample of chicken have found the concentration of tetracycline as 229 and 339 μg/kg, respectively while chlortetracycline was not detected. This result confirmed widespread misuses of antibiotics especially tetracycline in farm and lack of application of recommended withdrawal times. Antimicrobial assay of chicken extracts was also performed by using the disc-diffusion agar method.The plates were incubated overnight at 37 °C for 18-24 hours, butmicrobial growthwas not observed in all the samples tested.

29-32

Authors: Saddiqa Hassan, Sana Ali, Sajid Hussain Sherazi

Background: Pregnancy outcomes of a borderline oligohydramnios versus normal relatively comes to be slightly increasing meconium‐stained fluid, low Apgar scores and hyper bilirubinemia on follow up as perinatal outcomes and increased risk of C section as maternal outcome. There is currently insufficient evidence to recommend additional perinatal and maternal testing based on a borderline oligohydramnios. Clinical determination is considered in evaluating meconium‐stained fluid, low Apgar scores and hyper bilirubinemia. Objective: The purpose of this study is to determine the adverse perinatal and maternal outcomes in uncomplicated late preterm pregnancies with borderline oligohydramnios. Setting: A total of 38 patients were studied, 19 were with normal AFI and 19 patients were of borderline AFI. Patients with normal AFI were referred as Group 1 and the other as Group 2. This study was conducted at Niazi Medical and Dental College, Sargodha. Population: Pregnant women with normal AFI at term and borderline patients with late preterm pregnancy and borderline oligohydramnios. Methods: This descriptive study was conducted at Niazi Medical and Dental College, Sargodha. This study comprised of 38 patients with normal AFI and border line AFI. Data of 19 patients with normal AFI and 19 patients with border line AFI was collected. The Inclusion Criteria was 19 singleton pregnancies of 36+6 weeks, with AFI ≤ 8 cm and 19 singleton pregnancy 37+ weeks with upto 24 cm AFI. In both groups, Maternal and perinatal outcomes were assessed. The results of both groups were compared in the end. Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that borderline AFI was not a risk for adverse perinatal and maternal outcomes in uncomplicated, late preterm pregnancies.

45-51

Authors: Kabita Giri, Bijay Kumar Shrestha, Jenish Shakya, Shiv Nandan Sah, Hemanta Khanal

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by drug resistant (DR) Uropathogenic Escherichia coli have become a significant worldwide public health problem. Green tea (Camellia sinensis), has been reported to have antimicrobial activities against various pathogenic bacteria. The main aim of our study was to estimate the antibacterial effect of green tea extract against drug resistant Uropathogenic E. coli isolated from urine samples of patients visiting in tertiary care hospital from eastern Nepal. During the study 360 urine samples were collected from UTI suspected patients visiting a tertiary care hospital of Biratnagar. Urine samples were cultured by using semi-quantitative culture technique and bacteria was identified by standard microbiological procedure. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done by Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion method according to NCCLS (2011) guidelines. The antibacterial effect of green tea extract was performed by preparing the 95% ethanol extract in Soxhlet apparatus which was dispensed in DMSO solution and sterilized by membrane filtration. Antibacterial activity of Green Tea Extract against MDR Uropathogenic Escherichia coli was performed by making different concentration of green tea. The overall prevalence of E. coli was 27.22% in study population whereas the prevalence of MDR E. coli was 21.08%. All the isolated E. coli exhibited 100% sensitivity towards Nitrofurantoin and it was still a drug of choice for the treatment of Urinary tract infection caused by E. coli. The green tea extracts exhibited effective antibacterial activity against MDR E. coli. The MIC of Green Tea Extract was found to be 600µg/ml for 24 MDR isolates and 1000µg/ml for remaining 11 isolates. Based on the present study it is concluded that Green Tea extracts have great potential as an antimicrobial agent against E. coli.

61-64

Authors: Ajaya Karkee, Dhanik Lal Mandal

An in-vitro experiment was carried out for testing the efficacy of various fungicides by adopting poisoned bait method against Rhizoctonia solani (isolated from large cardamom) in Agricultural Research Station, Pakhribas. The experiments were conducted with Completely Randomized Design (CRD) during 2016 with four replications. Two level of concentration of the fungicides (10 ppm and 100 ppm) were used and concentration was calculated based on active ingredients (a.i.) of the pesticides. At lower concentration (10 ppm), Nativo (Tubeconazole 50% + Trifloxystrobin 25 WG) and Dhanustan (Carbendazim 50 % WP) whereas at higher concentration (100 ppm), Folicure (Tubeconazole 25.9 %) and Saaf (Carbendazim 12 % + Mancozeb 63 % WP) found effective for the inhibitions of mycelia growth of R. solani. For the control of R. solani, Nativo and Dhanustan showed greatest inhibition of mycelia growth at 10 ppm concentration as compared to other fungicides. The fungicides containing Tubeconazole and Carbendazim as active ingredients, shows highest degree of mycelia inhibitions as compared to others. The fungicides found effective for inhibition of mycelia growth of R. solani in this study should be further tested in field conditions to verify their efficacy as well as to determine their optimum doses of application.

71-77

Authors: Pratiksha Sharma, Rishi Ram Kattel, Ananta Prakash Subedi

This research was conducted to assess farmer’s adaptation strategies of climate change in maize cultivation among Chepang and Non-Chepang communities in Chitwan. Pre-tested questioner, direct observation and secondary data were collected and used. Data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics, time series regression, Logit and seemingly unrelated regression model. Productivity of study area was found to be positively affected by total rainfall whereas negatively affected by average temperature. Majority of respondents (86.7%) were found to adopt any one of the climate change related adaptation strategies on maize cultivation. Among various adaptation strategies, mix cropping (66.3%) was found major in the study areas. Head of household, knowledge about climate change and economically active members in the family were positive determinant on adoption of climate change adaptation strategies.SUR model showed that education of household head, economically active member in the household, an involvement in extension/ training and maize production were major positively significant explanatory variables whereas age, gender of household head and involvement in an organization were major negatively significant explanatory variables in farmer’s decision for adaptation of different climate change combating strategies. The study concluded that farmers of Chitwan perceived change in climate with negative effect on their maize cultivation practices. In comparison to Non-Chepang, Chepang farmers had less knowledge and adaptation practices. More focus from government and Nongovernment sector through proper policy implementation and technology intervention is needed to support this backward community.

83-95

Authors: Padam Lal Bhandari, Rishi Ram Kattel

Beekeeping is a low investment and low input business enterprise with immediate return. However, very few researches has been done on value chain analysis of honey sub-sector in Nepal. Such a backdrop, this research gauges the value chain of honey in Nepal focusing value chain function, actors/products flow and enabling business in 2018. Both primary and secondary information were collected using different research instruments in 2018. This study revealed that Apis cerana was the major honey-bee reared in Pyuthan district and about 50% youth were engaged in beekeeping business. Each household have an average of 32 hives ranging from 15 to 80 hives. Average 32 kg honey was consumed at HHs level and 239 kg was sold. The average wholesale rate of honey at farm gate was about NPR 400-450 (USD 3.6-4.1) per kg with the retail price rate was NPR 500 (USD 4.5). An average income earned from honey sale was NPR 60000 (USD 545) per annum ranging from NPR 20000 to 120000. Majority of the beekeepers received training whereas none of them have done insurance. About 55% of the beekeepers have taken loan from saving groups and cooperatives or MFIs. There has not any provision of grading, processing and labelling of the product at producer’s point in the study area. The main threats of beekeeping came from loss of habitat, disease, pest and enemies. This research suggests to develop upgrading practices with facilitation of basic value chain practices for promotion of high-quality Nepali honey at global markets.

102-107

Authors: Deepak Subedi, Milan Kandel, Shrijana Khanal, Prem Lal Mahato, Ramchandra Acharya

This study was undertaken to find out the prevalence of diseases in broilers age group 1-14 days at Chitwan district, Nepal. This subjective study was carried out using the secondary data retrieved from National Avian Disease Investigation Laboratory (NADIL). Chitwan and Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH), Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chitwan in last two years viz. June 2016 to June 2018. The cases recorded were categorized and those up-to age 14 days old broiler chicks (n=1112) were selected for the study. Data and Informations were entered in Microsoft Excel 2010 and analyzed using SPSS ver. 22. Results illustrates that the average flock size was 913.51± 918.49 with a range from 30 to 10000 chicks. The case was reported highest in 14th day followed by 12th and 10th day. The prevalence of bacterial disease was found to be highest (57.46%) followed by mycoplasma infection (10.61%) and metabolic diseases (10.16%). Prevalence of Colibacillosis was highest (43.25%) followed by Salmonellosis (12.85%) and Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) (10.61%). The level of chicks’ average mortality was 2.14% of total flock size. The Pearson’s correlation between flock size and mortality was found to be 0.82, which was highly significant (p<0.01). The mortality varies significantly (p<0.01) with change in seasons, the prevalence of disease was higher in summer (32.28%) followed by winter (29.13%). Prevalence was recorded as 65.19% among age group 8-14 days and followed by 1-7 days age group (34.80%). Thus, disease management during second week followed by the first week can decrease the disease prevalence and mortality of chicks and increase the efficiency of farm.

395-406

Authors: Gapili Naoura, Mahamat Alhabib Hassane, Djinodji Reoungal, Serferbe Signaboubo, Eva Weltzien- Rattunde

Plant genetic resources and germplasm are fundamental sources for plant breeding, and the assessment of the genetic diversity among germplasm accessions is useful to facilitate the more efficient use of plant genetic resources. The current study was carried out to estimate genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance to select genotypes and traits for breeding. In the experiment undertaken, fifty-three sorghum landraces were evaluated for selected seven qualitative and fourteen quantitative traits using randomized complete block design in three repetitions. There were differences (p< 0.001) among landraces for all assessed traits indicating a high degree of variability. Higher genotypic coefficient of variation and phenotypic coefficient of variation were observed for grain weight of main panicle, number of leaf remain green and weight of main panicle. Estimates of phenotypic variances were higher than genotypic variance for all the studied quantitative traits. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance as per cent of mean was observed for majority of assessed traits. This study allowed noting a positive relationship between number of day to flowering with plant height and stay green, and a negative correlation between plant height and weight of main panicle. A dendrogram revealed four main clusters of genotypes. The D2 statistics confirmed the highest inter-cluster distance between all clusters. This indicated existence of the possibility to improve genotypes through hybridization from any pair of clusters.

414-420

Authors: Premalatha Shetty, Chaithra Acharya, Nalavi Veeresh

Urea-potash mixture was added to the manured soil at three different concentrations equivalent to 0.8, 1.6 and 2.4g f urea per 10Kg of soil. Nitrate and nitrite N concentration in the soil increased within 24h after addition of urea. The nitrate N content in soil without urea was 17 µg and in urea fertilized soils, it ranged from 39.9-47 µg/g of soil after 19h. . Increase in total mineralizable N was around 67- 160% in urea fertilized soils in comparison to the control. Percent conversion of urea to nitrate and nitrite N decreased at higher concentrations of the fertilizer. Addition of biochar to urea amended soil did not bring about significant change in the available N content. Decrease in total mineralizable N and accumalation of available P was observed over the period of 15 days. Addition of urea resulted in acidification of the soil. Acidification of the soil could be correlated with increase in acid phosphatase concentration. The soil amended with biochar exhibited significant buffering capacity in the region of pH 7.4-9.

429-433

Authors: Anil Kumar Tiwary, Sumit Sharma, Milan Kandel, Manoj Kumar Shah

Induced molting of laying hens is a common husbandry practiced in many commercial farms. This study was aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of induced molting on production parameters along with production economics of Layers. For this study, Lohmann Brown-Classic hens were reared in a modern cage system from 10 weeks of age. There was no significant difference(P>0.05) in egg production in Hen Day Basis (HDP) before 65 weeks in comparison to standard performance table provided by Lohmann Brown- Classic Layers Management Guide (Cage Housing). A total of 8087 laying hens were divided into two treatment groups after 65 weeks of age; one group (N=4055) without any feed restriction (control=T0) and another (N=4032) had induced molting with 15 days of feed restriction, provided with only water and mineral supplements (T1) followed by five days of exclusive Ground Maize feeding. The average HDP before division of treatment was recorded 83.37%. The T0 and T1 group were reared up to 85 and 109 weeks respectively, in accordance to the economical sustainability. The feed intake per bird, egg production including marketable and non-marketable eggs and mortality along with production economics of both groups were recorded. The T1 group reached its peak egg production (88.48%) on Hen Day Basis (HDP) after 62 days following treatment which was higher (P<0.05) than the T0 group. The ratio of marketable to non-marketable eggs was found higher in T1 (69.32:1) than that of T0 (38.53:1). The production cost per egg was recorded NRs.6.86 and 6.99 respectively for T1 and T0 group with 4.33% more profit on T1 than T0 group. This study suggests that induced molting with feed restriction approach is beneficial to bypass the scarcity period with falling market value of eggs and also increase the ratio of marketable eggs to non-marketable eggs.

440-444

Authors: Amar Kumar Sinha

Type 2 DM is the common and rising on the world wide. The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of Type 2 DM in eastern region of Nepal. The objectives of this study ware to find out the prevalence of type 2Diabetes Mellitus in different age groups and gender i.e. male & females of eastern region of Nepal. This was a hospital based retrospective study was carried out between the age group of 0-75 and 76 and above yrs during April 2015 to Feb.2016. Sample size 9,765 subjects who were attended outdoor patient department (OPD) and indoor patient department (IPD) investigated for estimation of blood glucose levels were selected. Family history of Type 2 DM (Diabetes Mellitus) was recorded by questioner. Blood Glucose estimation was performed by Glucose Oxidase Peroxidase (GOD/POD) enzymatic method used. Diagnostic criteria of Type 2 DM recommended by American Diabetes Association and WHO.Statistical analysis was done using Excel. Total of 9,765 patients were included in the study. Among the total population 9,765 found1, 195 patients elevated casesin which 829/5,612 were males and 366/4,153 were females. The highest prevalence of type 2 diabetes 47.03% in the age group of 26-50 yrs and the second highest was 44.77% in 51-75 yrs age group. Male were found to be higher 69.4% in all the age groups than females 30.6%. Out of 1,195 diabetic patients, 27.20% have family history of Type 2 DM (Diabetes Mellitus). It has been observed that Type 2 DM is the most common among the age group of 26-50 yrs. It is also evident that the higher prevalence group was found to be males than female’s. Recently it was found that the prevalence of Type 2 DM (Diabetes Mellitus) was increasing which could be due to ignorance of the problems and poor medical service in the country.

453-458

Authors: Manoj Sharma

This study assessed value chain and marketing performance of vegetable subsector of Sindupalchowk district, Nepal with the objectives of identifying the value chain actors and their roles, analyzing the market channel and identifying the problems related to production and marketing system The study was based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data were collected from 84 households that were selected purposive proportionately. The study showed major vegetable value chain actors as input suppliers, producers, bulk traders, retailers, wholesalers and consumers. The total amount of vegetable production was 29.73 tons with productivity of 7.2 tons/ha transacting 17.92 tons of vegetables through four marketing channels. The channel transacting the vegetables to consumers directly by producers was found to be dominant in terms of volume of vegetable which represented 71.75% of total vegetable supplied by farmers (12.86 tons). The bulk traders supplied 18.97 % of vegetables to Kathmandu and 8.77% to consumers of Sindupalchowk district through retailers. The wholesalers were of least volume transacting actor to consumers through retailers (0.51%). The study suggests that Government of Nepal should focus on development of marketing infrastructures to provide equitable market sharing to actors.

298-303

Authors: Sushant Puri, Shubham Shingh, Preeya Tiwari

Multicellular filamentous fungi grown on the surface and inside of moist food secretes toxins in the form of their secondary metabolites which are commonly called mycotoxins. The presence of mycotoxins in food has been a burning issue and a threat to food security and safety. The global population has sky-rocked continues to be, which has created a challenge of providing quality food to the consumers. Aflatoxins, prevalent in most of the food crops in Nepal as well have posed a risk to national food security. Moreover, the consumption of food products containing mycotoxins is a cause of several health hazards like cancer, gastrointestinal problems, and neuropsychiatric effects. Mycotoxins not only has affected humans but also animals. Prevention, decontamination, and inhibition of absorption of toxins have been done in order to manage and mitigate the effects of mycotoxins. Recent research on mycotoxins is focused on the development of new methods to detect and analyze masked mycotoxins obtained from various sources. This review shows the contribution of mycotoxin in the global food security issue as well as its deleterious effects in human and animal health.

309-316

Authors: Nabin Pandey, Madhusudhan Adhikhari, Binod Bhantana

In the world, the traditional agricultural practices are getting affected by various problems such as disease, pest, drought, decreased soil fertility due to use of hazardous chemical pesticides, pollution and global warming. As a result, there is a need for some eco-friendly bio-control agents that help in resolving the previous mentioned problems. The various types of biological control agents such as bacteria and fungi are involved in bio-control activity. Among them, fungal genus Trichoderma plays a major role in controlling the plant diseases. Species of Trichoderma are diverse fungal microbial community known and explored worldwide for their versatilities as biocontrol and growth promoting agents. These fungi reproduce asexually by production of conidia and chlamydospores and in wild habitats by ascospores. Trichoderma species are efficient mycoparasites and prolific producers of secondary metabolites, some of which have clinical importance. However, the ecological or biological significance of this metabolite diversity is sorely lagging behind the chemical significance. Several Trichoderma spp. positively affect plants by stimulating plant growth, and protecting plants from fungal and bacterial pathogens. They are used in biological plant protection as bio-fungicides as well as in bioremediation. A large number of research groups are working on various aspects of Trichoderma viz., diversity, ecology and their applications. The capacity of Trichoderma fungi to produce lytic enzymes is used in animal feed, and wine making and brewery industries. Trichoderma spp. are the most successful bio-control agents as more than 60% of the registered bio-fungicides used in today’s agriculture belongs to Trichoderma -based formulation. The increase in incidence and severity of diseases and emergence of new diseases causes the significant yield losses of different crops in Nepal. But the research and studies on plant diseases are limited.

327-334

Authors: Md. Nuruzzaman, Md. Shohel Rana, Aleya Ferdausi, Md. Monjurul Huda, Lutful Hassan, Shamsun Nahar Begum

A field experiment was conducted at subtropical region in Bangladesh to assess the contribution of morphological traits to variability in some NERICA mutant rice lines. The experiment was conducted following RCBD with three replications. Thirty-one NERICA rice genotypes (twenty-eight mutant lines along with three parents) of advanced generations were used. Data were collected on twelve morphological traits. The results of the principal component analysis showed that the first four components account for 80% of total variation giving a clear idea of the structure underlying the variables analyzed. This result was also supported by scree test. Cluster analysis using Ward's method classified the thirty-one genotypes into five distinct groups. The maximum inter-cluster distance was observed between clusters indicating the possibility of high heterosis if individuals from these clusters are cross-bred. The results of PCA were closely in line with those of the cluster analysis. These results can now be used by breeders to develop drought tolerant high yielding rice varieties and new breeding protocols for rice improvement.

341-346

Authors: Pawan Devkota, Dipendra Aryal, Baburam Khanal

Availability of plant nutrients in rhizosphere is directly influenced by types of crop grown and land use pattern. The experiment was conducted in Diktel Rupakot Majhuwagadhi Municipality, Khotang, Nepal to assess the soil nutrients dynamics as influenced by different cropping system. Five different cropping systems (Rice – Wheat, Maize – Millet, Maize – Vegetables, Ginger and Cardamom) were selected as treatments and all treatments were replicated for five times for blocking in Randomized Complete Block Design. Soil samples from 0-15 cm depth were collected from each site and evaluated for soil pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), and available potassium (K). All the tested parameters except N were found to be significantly affected by cropping system. Soil in all five cropping systems were found acidic (pH<6.5) in nature with pH ranging from 5.180-6.640. The SOC was recorded highest (3.102%) from Cardamom based system and lowest amount of SOC was observed in Ginger based system. The highest amount of P (32.14 mg/kg) was reported in Maize – Vegetables cropping system and lowest P content (5.72 mg/kg) was recorded from Cardamom based system. P content in Ginger based system (31.51 mg/kg) was statistically at par with that of Rice – Wheat system. The highest K content (306.50 mg/kg) was recorded from Maize – Vegetable cropping system and lowest K content (34.80 mg/kg) was observed in Cardamom based system which is statistically similar to Rice –Wheat (35.70 mg/kg) and Maize –Millet systems (77.20 mg/kg). The result indicated that cropping systems have huge impact on plant nutrient dynamics in soil.

354-358

Authors: Pushpa Karna Mallick

Pollen morphology of twelve species of angiosperms from Central Nepal was cytologically carried out in present investigation. In this investigation pollen morphology of Bignonia venusta Ker Gawl. and Jacranda mimisifolia D.Don from the family Bignoniaceae; Brassica compestris L. from Brassicaceae; Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth. from Lythraceae; Coriandrum sativum L. from Apiaceae; Crepis japonica L. and Dichrocephala integrifolia (L f.) kunzte. from Asteraceae; Delphinium ajacis L. from Ranunculaceae; Dianthus barbetus L. from Caryophyllaceae; Euphorbia Milii Des Moul. and Euphorbia pulcherima L. from Euphorbiaceae and Magnolia fuscata from Magnoliaceae were studied. Shape of the pollen grains found to be mostly spheroidal, few circular, one elliptical, one triangular and one elongated in this study. Sculpture of exine wall found to be smooth, echidnae, tected, reticulated and perforated type. Aperture of the pollen grains found to be triporate to pentaporate. The large, medium and small sized pollen grains were observed in present research. The high diversty of sculpture type in pollen grains of angiosperms has been associated to diversity in pollination systems. Smooth pollen grains are linked with wind or water pollination while sculptured pollen grains associated with biotic pollination. The morphology of pollen grain is one of the significant tools in solving some taxonomic problems such as identification, tracing phylogenetic relationship on the family, generic or specific level and in plant systematic and evolution.

365-369

Authors: Kishor Kafle, Chandeshwar Parsad Shriwastav, Madan Marasini

Field experiment was conducted at the research farm of Regional Agriculture Research Station (RARS), Khajura to evaluate the influence of integrated nutrient management options that could enhance the properties of soil and yield of potato under the different climatic conditions of Khajura. The experiment was started in November 2016 in randomized complete block design with different seven treatments of nutrients using Farm yard manure (FYM), Poultry manure (PM) Vermicompost (VC). Available N, P and K status in the soil increased gradually due to the application of inorganic and organic fertilizers. The plots receiving 50 % RDNPK through inorganic fertilizers and remaining 50% RDN through PM registered the highest available N, P and K status in the soil. The highest pH (6.3) content in soil was found in plots treatments with poultry manure and inorganic fertilizers. Potato plots treated with FYM and inorganic fertilizers produced higher SOM content in soil after harvest (2.38%) as compared to control plots (2.09%). The treatments integrated with FYM show less bulk density than the control plot. Organic manures treated plots produce taller plants as compared plots receiving inorganic fertilizers only. Integrated use of 50 % recommended dose of NPK through inorganic fertilizers and remaining 50% RDN through PM produced higher numbers of tubers per plot (304 tubers per plot) and total tuber yield (22.86 tha-1).

378-381

Authors: Gaurav Rawal, Denusha Shrestha

Leptospira hardjo is the most commonly reported cause of leptospirosis among cattle globally. The objective of this study was to determine sero-detection of Leptospira hardjo in cattle of Bhaktapur district of Nepal. A cross-sectional study was conducted in cattle pockets located at 4 different village development committees (VDCs) in the Bhaktapur district of Nepal. The sample collection was done in cattle to determine the sero-detection of Leptospira hardjo from February 2014 to June 2014. A total of 176 serum samples were collected from four VDCs of Bhaktapur district namely Sipadol, Dhadikot, Duwakot and Nangkhel, selected purposively. Forty samples from Sipadol, 46 Dhadikot, 42 Duwakot and 48 from Nangkhel were collected. 5 ml of blood was collected aseptically from jugular vein using 5 ml sterile disposable syringe. After that blood was transferred to the plain vacutainer. The harvested sera were transferred to serum vials and stored at in -20˚c deep freeze of Central Veterinary Laboratory until used for ELISA test. For screening of Leptospira hardjo, the Leptospira hardjo antibody test kit, ELISA (Prionics, Netherlands) was used. ANOVA along with multiple comparison test Tukey was used to compare frequency of detection across different locations in Bhaktapur district using SAS 9.4. MS-Excel was used to manage ELISA data from four different VDCs and to extract information regarding frequency of detection. There was 5.11% sero-detection in cattle of Bhaktapur district. Location wise sero-detection was 5% in Sipadol, 4.3% in Dhadikot, 4.76% in Duwakot and 6.25% in Nangkhel. The study showed that the detection of Leptospira hardjo in cattle. There was no statistical difference (P>0.05) between location suggesting that cattle in all areas are equally at risk of this pathogen. Further study is suggested on isolation and identification of disease in Nepal.

387-394

Authors: L. Rani, A. Munjani, G. Lakra, A.K. Choudhury, R.K. Pandey

Different species of Cassia found in Jharkhand are consumed as daily vegetables have high nutritional value. Most of them are underutilized and display varied ethenomedicinal values. The work was carried out with an aim to document three ethno medicinal properties of three different species of Cassia, Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea and Cassia tora. The documentation was done among 100 tribal people residing in the area near Morabadi, Ranchi. The knowledge revealed that the three plants were used in almost every tribal houses as a dietary supplement and various medicinal uses. According to the Munda Vaidya’s the plant Cassia is of pitta nature and its different part have different uses. The root is used against tuberculosis glands, diabetes, as a tonic, the root and bark paste mixed in equal amount is used against snake bite. traditionally it is used as laxative, for the treatment of leprosy and various skin disorders. the present study aimed to screen and quantify primary and secondary metabolite by quantitative and qualitative method. The pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoid) were characterised by UV visible spectroscopy. Concentration of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b and carotenoid was calculated by Arnon method (80% acetone extract). The spectrophotometric study of the different pigment of the three species of Cassia, Cassia fistula (chl-a 254.516, chl-b 305.741, total chl 533.7 carotenoid 10.6), Cassia siamea (chl-a 257.88, chl-b 393.16, total chl 630.2 carotenoid 9.395), Cassia tora (chl-a 266.36, chl-b 271.96, total chl 538.32 carotenoid 16.3). The result revealed that chl-a was highest in Cassia tora followed by Cassia siamea and Cassia fistula. Chl-b pigment followed C. siamea> C. fistula>C. tora pattern, total chl C. siemea>C. tora>C. fistula and the carotenoid amount C. tora > C. fistula > C. siamea. In screening of secondary metabolites tannin, saponins alkaloids, terpenoids, resin Phyto-sterols were carried out on the aqueous extract showed +ve test for all except phyto-sterols and on the powdered specimen gave –ve result in aqueous, ethanol as well as acetone extract.

130-152

Authors: Liza Goyal, Sunil Khanna

In lieu of rising crude oil prices, exhaustion of petroleum feed stocks and environmental challenges, only renewable fuels have the potential to match the energy requirements of the future. Among the various renewable fuels, butanol has recently gained a lot of attention because of its advantages over other biofuels. Its microbial production by clostridia through ABE fermentation is being explored for improved yield and cost effectiveness. Using lignocellulosic wastes successfully for butanol production through ABE fermentation is a major breakthrough to deal with the future energy crisis. Genetic engineering of microbes to increase the carbon and redox balance, cell recycling, media optimization, mathematical modelling and tolerance improvement strategies are being attempted to overcome the hurdles of high production cost, by products formation leading to low yield and product toxicity. Along with genetic engineering major research is cantered on heterologous host engineering for improved butanol production and tolerance. This review highlights the recent advances in improving yield and tolerance to butanol in both Clostridial and heterologous hosts from genetic engineering and fermentation methodology aspects.

161-166

Authors: A. Bista, T.N. Joshi, K. Biswokarma, S. Yadav

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the major vegetable crops of Nepal. Potato is grown all over the globe and consumed as either vegetable or staple food depending upon the crop production scenario. It is also an integral part of human diet. Potato is a high nutrient mining crop and needs higher fertilization for economic tuber production. Despite sufficient application of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P2O5), low replenishment and widespread potassium deficiency are limiting the potato production in Nepalese condition. Growth parameters such as plant height, leaf area and chlorophyll% was positively correlated with potassium application. Potassium alleviated stresses of frost and drought and reduced incidence of diseases like late blight, black scurf and hollow heart. Potassium also decreased the reducing sugar content and improved chips color and quality. Similarly, potassium application before harvest was found to increase storage life of potato tubers. Furthermore, potassium application significantly increased the yield of potato tubers and quality parameters such as Vitamin C content and specific gravity. Source of potassium and method of potassium application also affected growth, yield and quality parameters. Soil application of potassium in splits coupled with foliar spay was found to perform better. Optimum dose of potassium was recommended for economic tuber production

174-183

Authors: B.S. Obadamudalige, Chalinda Koshitha Beneragama, S.M.M.R. Mawalagedera

Alstroemeria spp. is one of the highly demanded cut flower in the local and global cut flower market. Short vase life of flowers and leaves, petal wilting, petal drop, and transparency of petals are major postharvest problems. The objective was to extend the vase life of Alstroemeria spp. with 1-methylcyclopropene and ascorbic acid. Freshly cut flowering stems of Alstroemeria spp. were treated with 1-methylcyclopropene (0.25 ppm) and ascorbic acid (57 mM) alone and in combination of the two, for six hours. Distilled water was used as the control. Postharvest concentrations of anthocyanin, chlorophyll and glucose in flowers were best maintained when treated with a combination of 1‐methylcyclopropene and ascorbic acid, compared to all other treatments. Percentage fresh weight loss was same among treatments. The best treatment to extend vase life of Alstroemeria spp. is the combination of 1‐methylcyclopropene and ascorbic acid, which extended the vase life by additional seven days compared to the control.

195-206

Authors: Mansi Malik, Reeti Chaudhary, C. S. Pundir

An improved amperometric pyruvate biosensor was fabricated by immobilizing covalently commercial pyruvate oxidase (POx) from Aerococcus sps. onto nanocomposite of c-MWCNT (carboxylated multi- walled carbon nanotubes), copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) and polyaniline (PANI) electrodeposited onto gold (Au) electrode. The copper nanoparticles were prepared by chemical reduction method and characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV- visible spectroscopy and X- ray diffraction (XRD). The working electrode (POx/c-MWCNT/CuNPs/PANI/AuE was studied via scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) at different stages of its construction. The biosensor showed optimum activity at a pH of 5.0 and 35°C and a linearity for pyruvate in the concentration range, 0.1 µM to 2000 µM. The analytical recovery of added pyruvate was 99.6% and 99.2%. The within and between batch coefficients of variation (CV) were 0.052% and as 0.022% respectively. There was a commendable correlation between sera pyruvate values as measured by standard spectrophotometric method and the present method. The biosensor was applied to measure sera pyruvate level and compared with that biosensor based on pyruvate oxidase nanoparticles covalently bound to Au electrode.

217-221

Authors: Abdul Ghaffar Khoso, Saeed Ahmed, Farrukh Asghar, Mansab Khan, Enayat Aziz, Khalil Asghar

Study was carried out on “Insect pests associated with tomato in local vegetable markets of Sindh, Pakistan” during November and December 2018. The insect pests’ infested-tomatoes are also sold in local vegetable markets and consume by people in Sindh, Pakistan. In present study was seen that the tomato fruit borer (caterpillar) fed symptoms, it had holed and bored, starting where the stem is attached to the fruit and these were ripped tomatoes and red colour. Insect infested tomatoes were collected; the thickness, length, the holes and inner fruit (interior) portions of the fruit damaged by the larvae were also measured and examined. A random selection of 30 vegetable vendor shops was selected in each city of Sindh. The largest pest infested tomato fruit was 30,120, the minimum was 2, 2 from the stock of 5, 5 kg, and 4, 7 green vegetable vendor shops there no pests found in tomato fruits. Overall, 243,995 insect-infested tomatoes were found in 305,515 kg, 30, 30 vegetable vender shops in Qasimabad and Shahdadkot. The maximum and minimum mean thicknesses and lengths of tomato fruits recorded from Qasimabad and Shahdadkot were 3.73, 3.31 cm, 3.06, 2.82 cm and 5.19, 4.75 cm, and 2.98, 3.7, respectively. The overall maximum and minimum thickness and tomato fruit length were 2.77, 3.83 cm and 2.47, 3.51 cm, respectively. The maximum and minimum mean ​​of tomato fruit hole and depth (internal feeding part) infested by insects were 0.73, 0.94 cm2 and 0.43, 0.61 cm2 and 1.07, 1.01 cm2 and 0.4, 0.38 cm2, respectively. While, the Overall total average hole diameter depth of the insect-infested tomato fruit was 0.51, 1.12 cm2 and the total depth was 0.75, 0.55 cm2 of the Qasimabad and Shahdadkot recorded respectively.

227-235

Authors: Bhojan Dhakal, Naba Raj Devkota, Sabita Subedi

A study was conducted to find out the production potential, nutrient composition, and the variability of the most commonly available fodder trees along with the varying altitude to help optimize the dry matter requirement during winter lean period. The study was carried out in Lho and Prok Village Development Committee of Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA), located in Gorkha district of Nepal.The study was conducted in two parts: social and biological. Accordingly, a households (HHs) survey was conducted to collect primary data from 70 HHs, focusing to the perception of respondents on impacts of climatic variability to the feeding management. The next part consisted of understanding yield potential and nutrient composition of the four most commonly available fodder trees (M. azedirach, M. alba, F. roxburghii, F. nemoralis), within two altitudes range: (1500-2000 masl and 2000-2500 masl) by using a RCB design in 2*4 factorial combination of treatments, each replicated four times. Fresh yield and dry matter yield of the each fodder trees was significant (P<0.01) between the altitude and within species. Fodder trees yield analysis revealed that the highest dry matter (DM) yield (28 kg/tree) was obtained for F. roxburghii but that remained statistically similar (P>0.05) to the other treatment. On the other hand, most of the parameters: ether extract (EE), acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent fibre (ADF), cell wall digestibility (CWD), relative digestibility (RD), digestible nutrient (TDN), and Calcium (Ca) among the treatments were highly significant (P<0.01).

243-247

Authors: Mohammad Quamrul Islam Matin, Mohammad Amiruzzaman, Md. Motasim Billah, Most. Bilkis Banu, Nazmun Naher, Dilwar Ahmed Choudhury

The present study was carried out to investigate the correlation coefficient, path analysis and genetic variability among some barley varieties for nine characters in a Randomize Block Design (RBD) with three replications in three environments of Bangladesh. High genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was obtained from grain/ spike (29.89 %), yield/ plant (28.72%) and effective tiller/plant (21.86 %) and spike length (13.56 %). The characters with high GCV indicated high potential for selection. The highest heritability (Hb) was observed for 1000 seed weight (95.09) followed by yield/ plant (93.98), grain/ spike (92.09) and spike length (69.93), days to heading (72.65) but the lowest Hb was identified for effective tiller/plant (22.41) followed by the plant height (34.21). Those traits with higher heritability may be considered for selection. Grain/ spike had the highest positive direct effect (5.65) on yield followed by 1000 seed weight (4.65), spike length (1.26), yield/ plant (0.66), days to heading (0.55) and days to maturity (0.34). These parameters were identified as direct selection. Direct negative effect on yield was shown by plant height (-0.32) and effective tiller/plant (-0.74). This was an indication of indirect selection.

248-256

Authors: Bhishma Raj Dahal, Swodesh Rijal

The study was conducted to determine the resource use efficiency, profitability and demography of maize farming in Sindhuli district. This study was conducted in 120 maize producers, 60 from Kamalamai Municipality (KMC) and 60 from Marin rural municipality. Pretested semi-structured questionnaire was administered to randomly selected farmers. Maize producers were interviewed using face to face interview method in the month of October 2018. All the data were entered into SPSS and Microsoft excel and analysis was done by using Microsoft excel and SPSS. Cobb- Douglas production function was used to determine the resource use efficiency of maize production. Benefit cost ratio in the research area is 1.20 which indicates that maize production was profitable and farmers of Sindhuli get additional 20 paisa with investment of one rupee in maize farming. Productivity, cost and income per hectare of maize farming in Sindhuli was 1.98 tons, Rs 42423.3 and Rs 50805 respectively. 10% increase in chemical fertilizer, FYM and seed cost resulted in increase in income by 7.21%, 2.43% and 0.6% respectively. 10% increase in labor and animal power resulted into 0.2% and 0.07% decrease in output. For optimal allocation of resource expenditure on seed and chemical fertilizer were need to be increased by 89.93% each. Labor, animal power and FYM were over utilized resources for maize farming. The sum of coefficients was 0.983 which implied decreasing return to scale, 100% increase in all the factor of production included in the model would result in 98.30% increase in maize production.

269-273

Authors: Sudip Mahat, Sundar Sapkota, Sanjib Sapkota, Krishna Katuwal

Ginger is a high value crop belongs to family Zingiberaceae. Ginger has multiple health benefits and can be easily grown in mid-hill regions of Nepal. The major challenge is the limited availability of information on factors affecting ginger yield. The objective of this project was to analyze different factors influencing ginger production. The study was conducted in Surkhet district of Nepal in 2018. A total of 100 farmers (60 and 40 from Barahtal and Chingad rural municipalities respectively) were selected using simple random sampling technique. Primary data were collected using interview schedule, focus group discussion and key informant interview. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel. The descriptive statistics, chi-square test and correlation were used to derive conclusion. The average age and land under ginger cultivation were 41 years and 0.093 hectare respectively. Average ginger production in the study area was 980 kg per ropani. There was a strong positive relationship between farm size and ginger production. Training, subsidy and labor crisis had positive association with ginger production. However, family size and years of schooling were not significant but positively correlated. It is recommended that concerned authorities should give emphasis on farmer training, extension services, and subsidy to enhance ginger production.

279-288

Authors: Kailash Prasad Pandey, Bijay Shrestha, Kushal Naharki, Chitra Bahadur Kunwar

The major objective of this study is to assess the status of maize production and adoption of improved maize seeds in Tanahun district. The study also aims to determine the factors affecting the adoption of the improved seeds. 100 maize farmers from four different local bodies of Tanahun were selected by the purposive sampling method for the household survey. Descriptive statistics, chi-square test, independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, logit model and index score ranking method were used for the data analysis. The productivity of maize and annual income from maize were 767.62 kg/ha and Rs 9500 higher for the farmers using improved seeds as compared to those using the local seeds. The mean annual household income of farmers replacing the seeds yearly was Rs 18983 higher than the farmers replacing the seeds rarely. The frequency of the agriculture technician support and the frequency of seed replacement with the improved seed were found to significantly determine the adoption of the improved maize seeds. Farmers receiving the regular technician support were 15.726 times more likely to adopt the improved seeds as compared to those receiving the technician support rarely or never. The adopters had 458.10 kg/ha higher productivity than the non-adopters. Lack of irrigation facility was found to be the major problem in maize cultivation whereas the lack of timely availability of improved seed was found to be the most important constraint for the adoption of improved seeds.

291-297

Authors: Premalatha Shetty, Aveena Roche, Sasidhar B Somappa

Extract was prepared from the pulp and peels of the Syzygium caryophyllatum berries. At pH ≤2, the extract showed prominent red coloration and at pH values above 7, the extract attained bluish-green coloration. These typical characteristics indicate presence of anthocyanin pigments in the berries. The yield of the anthocyanins was around 1.9mg per gram wet weight and, around 43% of the anthocyanin pigments appear to be present in polymerized forms. At pH 1.0, the pigments absorbed maximally at 515nm and at pH 9.0, the pigments were found to absorb to a maximum extent in the range of 380-400nm. The colors at alkaline pH were unstable, while the red coloration under acidic conditions was relatively stable when exposed to fluorescent light and temperature of 50°C. Mass spectrum of the extract showed predominance of malvidin and petunidine derivatives in the extract. Syzygium caryophyllatum berries can serve as reservoirs of anthocyanin pigments.