Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine

427-434

Authors: A Mariana, MN Shukor, Norhazizi H Muhd, Nurlemsha B Intan, TM Ho

Objective To document movement patterns, home range, nesting behaviour and social organization of 5 individuals (3 males and 2 females) of a common species of tree-shrew, Tupaia glis (T. glis) surrounding houses of otoacariasis cases. Methods Each shrew was fitted with a transmitter chip radio-collar which operates between the frequencies of 154.13 MHz to 154.21 MHz. Each transmitter was then tracked with a Portable Telemetry Receiver (Sirtrack, New Zealand) fitted with a 3-element Yagi antenna. Collared shrews were located using standard methods of ground-based triangulation. Each location was taken from at least 2 directional fixes and a minimum of 3 compass bearings. Fixes were taken hourly for each collared individual from the time of emergence from nest (beginning of activity) till time of entry into the nest (end of activity) every day for 5 to 7 continuous days. Three series of radio telemetry observations were carried out. The bearings, time and positions of an observer were recorded and later plotted on a graph paper in order to derive coordinates of the collared animal. [These coordinates then analyzed using Ecological Software Solutions (Biotas Version 1.03)]. Results Nests were found in a jack fruit tree, long bushes, and 2 houses. Daily telemetry detections demonstrated 2 individuals of different sex having nests (or a nest) in the same house. All shrews emerged from and returned to their nests between 0601 to 0659 hours and 1901 to 1959 hours, respectively. Both the time of exit from and entry into nest were the same between sexes (P>0.05). Their average total active period was 4.90 to 7.00 hours with a total daily travel distant of 270 m to 382 m. A male and a female shrew can move as far as 3 285 m and 4 591 m, respectively. Active movements of T. glis were during daytime. They regularly entered some houses in the area during day and night except for one individual which visited during daytime only. The sizes of home range and core area for the shrews were 2.00–3.40 ha and 0.05–0.42 ha, respectively. Generally, the mean home range size of females was 20.8% larger than that of males. Females covered a 15.4% slightly higher daily movement range compared to males. Conclusions This is the first radio telemetry study in Malaysia to monitor movements and home range of shrews carrying ticks on their body. It demonstrates that shrews are potential carriers of ticks from wild into the houses and their compounds based on their total active periods spent moving around from fruit orchards, secondary forest, plantations and other vegetations to trees in compound of 4 to 7 houses and vice versa. There are also evidences showing shrews have close contact with humans.

439-442

Authors: Amin Mansour, Kalantar Enayat, Mohammad-Saeid Neda, Ahsan Behzad

Objective To evaluate the antibacterial effect and physicochemical properties of essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss. Methods Antibacterial activity of essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss was assessed by agar disc diffusion and minimal inhibitory concentration(MIC) was tested by E test. Results The essential oil of Zataria multiflora Boiss was effective on pathogenic bacteria particularly Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The MIC values of the target cultures ranged from 0.39 mg/mL to 1.56 mg/mL. The physicochemical properties like effects of pH, temperature, detergents, and enzymes on the activity of essential oil from Zataria multiflora Boiss were also determined. The essential oil was quite stable to temperature as tested against S. aureus and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The essential oil was very stable over a wide range of pH. The antibacterial activity of essential oil was insensitive to various protein-denaturing detergents (Such as Tween 80, Tween 20, Triton 100, etc.) and enzymes (namely proteinase K, trypsin, lipase, and lysosyme). Conclusions A potential use of the essential oil from Zataria multiflora Boiss is suggested. More studies including further purification, mass spectra, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and evaluation of toxicity are needed for confirmation of this suggestion.

448-450

Authors: Onyebiguwa Patrick Goddey Nmorsi, Clement Isaac, Igho Benjamin Igbinosa, Duncan Ogheneocovo Umukoro, Dafe Palmer Aitaikuru

Objective To investigated the prevalence of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiens in an endemic focus of Nigeria, as it relates to age, sex and occupational differences. Methods A total of 474 human subjects were screened using card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis kit. Positive samples were further investigated for parasite positivity in blood/serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Results Of the 474 screened, 44(9.3%) were seropositive with seroprevalence of 22(9.6%) in Urhouka, 14(9.5%) in Umeghe and 8(7.9%) for Ugonu. The number of seropositives, observed for weakly, moderately and strongly positives for the three communities were 4, 7 and 11 in Urhouka, 4, 5 and 5 in Umeghe and 3, 2 and 3 in Ugonu respectively. Among the 16 volunteers with detected parasite in their blood, 4 of them were weakly positive, 5 of them were moderately positive and 7 of them strongly positive. 4 volunteers from Urhouka community were found parasites in their CSF and they were all strongly positive. The difference between the seroprevalence of males and females was not statistically significant (OR=1.14, 95% CI=0.37–3.4, P>0.05). The prevalence difference between age group 21–30 years old and the youngest and oldest age groups was statistically significant (OR=3.5, 95% CI=1.08–12.57, P<0.05) but not significant for other age categories (P>0.05). It was observed that farmers had significantly higher prevalence of HAT infection as well as greater risk of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection than inhabitants with other occupations (OR=3.25, 95% CI=0.99–11.79, P<0.05). Conclusions Human activities such as farming and visits to the river have been identified as major risk factors to HAT. Also the breakdown of HAT control program has been advanced for the rise in HAT in Abraka, an endemic focus in Nigeria.

454-457

Authors: PN Krishnan, R Saraswathi, C Dilip, N Ramarao

Objective To formulate and evaluate acyclovir microcapsules using bakers yeast. Methods Acyclovir, pretreated yeast and deionised water were taken at a volumetric ratio of 1:2:4 respectively. This suspension was agitated in a magnetic stirrer at 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, and 40°C for 4 hours. The suspension was then centrifuged for 10 minutes at 2 000 rpm. The supernatant solution was decanted and the cells were washed 5 times with deionised water. Then the suspended drug entrapped yeast cells were dried in a lyophillizer for 48 hours. The yield was noted. Results The first four formulations were done with 200 mg of the drug, followed by 400 mg for the next four formulations and 800 mg the last four formulations. SEM showed that the surface of the microcapsules was intact, with no burst characteristics. FTIR showed no interaction between acyclovir and the cell wall. DSC showed that the peak was within the standard values. The mean particle size for all the samples was 8 μm in diameter. The dissolution studies were done for all the twelve samples and showed a Fickian model of diffusion. Conclusions From the results it is inferred that the samples prepared at 40°C (FY-4, FY-8, FY-12) show better entrapment and release. So these samples are formulated in the form of a suspension and compared with marketed acyclovir suspension using HPLC technique. The formulated suspensions with FY-4, FY-8 and FY-12 shows drug content in accordance with the standards of the pharmacopoeial limits.

461-464

Authors: Momohmumuni Audu, Adikwu Michael Umale, Ibezim Emmanuel Chinnedu

Objective To formulate and evaluate the application of PEGylated mucin in oral bioadhesive drug (OBD) delivery system. Methods The bioadhesive strength of different formulation ratios of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and mucin was evaluated by tensiometry. Co polymer matrices containing mucin and PEG (PEGylated mucin) in the following ratios of 1:1 (A), 2:1 (B), 1:2 (C), 0:1 (D) and 1:0 (E) were prepared by co-precipitation. Microparticles were prepared from the matrices using a size reduction technique. Five different samples were prepared using direct mixtures in the appropriate solvenfs having mucin and PEG ratios of 1:1, 2:1, 1:2, 0:1, 1:0 and labeled as (A-E). The matrices were evaluated for their flow properties and the in vitro bioadhesion characteristics of the samples were examined. Results The range of flow rates of the matrices was 1.35–2.23 g/sec. The angle of repose was in the range of 37.3–39.9 degree. The bulk and tapped densities were within the ranges of 0.41–0.49. The Hausner's quotient (HQ) were 1.12, 1.24, 1.14, 1.25 and 1.2 for matrix batches A-E respectively, The bioadhesive strength of polymer matrices appeared to be directly related to amount of mucin. The order of bioadhesive strength is 2:1 > 1:1 > 1:0 > 1:2 > 0:1 of PEG: mucin in both simulated intestine fluid (SIF) and simulated gastrointestinal fluid (SGF). The physical properties of the micrometrics properties of the matrices were within the accepted values. Conclusions OBD preparation containing PEGylated mucin can be prepared by direct compression and be used in drug delivery to the oral cavity.

471-474

Authors: Abhishek K Jain, V Ravichandran, Madhvi Sisodiya, RK Agrawal

Objective To synthesis 2–substituted–4,5–diphenyl–N–alkyl imidazole derivatives. and evaluate their antibacterial activity. Methods A mixture of benzil (10 mmol) and ammonium acetate (0.1 mol) (immediately fused) in glacial acetic acid (25 mL) was stirred at 80–100 °C for 1 h under nitrogen atmosphere (to prevent incorporation of any atmospheric impurities and moisture). Substituted aldehydes (10 mmol) in glacial acetic acid (5 mL) was added drop-wise over a period of 15–20 min at the same temperature and stirred for another 4 h, the progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC test using ethyl acetate as eluent. The newly synthesized compounds were characterized by IR, 1HNMR, 13CNMR and by mass spectroscopy. Results All the synthesized compounds were confirmed by spectroscopical techniques and evaluated for antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus(S. aurius), Bacilus subtilus (B. subtilus), and Escheria coli (E. coli). These compounds showed antibacterial activity (zone of inhibition) against S. aurius ranged from 3 mm to 9 mmin diameter, B. subtilus, 4–8 mm, and E. coli 5–12 mm. Out of 2a-2e, only 2a and 2b showed some sort of activity but none of them had considerable activity compared with that of the standard. Conclusions All the synthesized compounds show moderate activity against the tested bacteria S. aurius, B. subtilus, and E. coli. So, further structural modification is necessary to improve the antibacterial action of 2-substituted-4,5-diphenyl-N-alkyl imidazole derivatives.

479-482

Authors: GT Jombo, S Akpan, J Epoke, Akaa P Denen, F Odey

Objective To ascertain the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) recovered from surgical site infections (SSIs). Methods The study was retrospective in nature and was compiled for a period of five years (1st February, 2004–31st January, 2009). Data were generated from the culture of post-operative wound swab specimens by the microbiology laboratory of University of Calabar Teaching Hospital. Relevant information from the patients' records was compiled, such as age, gender, type of surgical procedure, microorganisms recovered and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. Obtained data was analysed by using Epi Info 6 statistical software. Results Of the 4 533 wound swab specimens processed, 673 were culture positive and P. aeruginosa was recovered from 13.1% of the culture positive specimens with its rate of recovery decreasing with age progression (P< 0.05) but with no gender difference (P> 0.05). Most of the P. aeruginosa isolates were from general surgery wards and least from orthopaedic wards. Ofloxacin, ceftriaxone and augmentin were the most active antibiotics while ampicillin, tetracycline and cotrimoxazole were the least active antibiotics, with no antibiotic having a 100% activity against the organism. Conclusions In view of the high resistance displayed by P. aeruginosa recovered from SSIs, adequate antiseptic procedures should be entrenched to avoid colonization of surgical wounds by this microorganism as well as others with similar sensitivity profile. Ofloxacin, ceftriaxone and augmentin may be considered for prevention of P.aeruginosa infection.

486-490

Authors: Neeraj Tiwari, Vineeta Kandpal, Ajoy Tewari, K. Ram Mohan Rao, VS Tolia

Objective To investigate the presence of statistically significant geographical clusters of tuberculosis (TB) using Geographical Information System and spatial scan statistics in Dehradun, India. Methods The spatial scan statistic implemented with a software program, SaTScan v6.1, was used to test the presence of statistically significant spatial clusters of TB and to identify their approximate locations (P< 0.05 for primary clusters and P<0.1 for secondary clusters). Geographical Information System was used for geographical analysis. Results Significant high rate spatial clusters were identified in seven wards of the Dehradun Municipal area. Conclusions There is sufficient evidence about the existence of statistically significant TB clusters in seven wards of Dehradun, India. The purely spatial scan statistics methodology used in this study has a potential use in surveillance of TB for detecting the true clusters of the disease.

494-495

Authors: Krishnananda Prabhu, Gummadi Maheshwar Reddy, Anjali Rao

Objective To measure and compare pre- and post-treatment levels of serum total glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in stage IV cervical cancer patients and erythrocytic glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and plasma ceruloplasmin (CP) and total GST in stage IV oral cancer patients and to correlate with the response to treatment during a two year follow-up period in respective cancer groups. Methods Thirty-four biopsy-proven stage IV oral cancer and cervical cancer patients (n=17 in each group) who underwent same mode of treatment were chosen for this study. Erythrocytic MDA and GSH, CP and serum total GST were measured in all patients before the onset of treatment, and the GST level was only measured in cervical cancer patients after radiotherapy. The levels were compared with their respective prognosis in 2 years. Results Oral cancer patients with higher pretreatment levels of GSH, CP and GST came with cancer recurrence within 2 years after the onset of treatment. Cervical cancer patients with higher post radiotherapy levels of serum total GST had higher recurrence tate. Conclusions This study indicates there may be a role for these antioxidant parameters namely GST, GSH, CP in assessment of long term survival and prognosis of cancer patients.

499-504

Authors: Charuai Suwanbamrung

In order to understand the community capacity for sustainable community-based dengue prevention and control, this paper proposes the approach of a previous study about meaning and domains of dengue prevention and control, an assessment tool and a community capacity building model for sustainable community-based dengue prevention and control in the Southern Thailand. A study of dengue community capacity domains was conducted by utilizing a qualitative method, whereby ten initial community domains were identified by means of a literature review, in-depth interviews of sixty community leaders, and eight focus group discussions with sixty non-leaders in four sub-districts of southern Thailand. In the final study, there were 14 identifiable domains in leaders group and 11 domains in non-leaders. The resulting dengue community capacity-assessment tool (DCCAT) consisted of two parts: one for leaders (DCCAT-L) and the other for non-leaders (DCCAT-NL). DCCAT-L was composed of 115 items within 14 domains and 83 items within 11 domains for the DCCAT-NL. The key domains of leaders and non-leaders had a partial overlap of domains such as critical situation management, personal leadership, health care provider capacity, needs assessment, senses of community, leader group networking, communication of dengue information, community leadership, religious capacity, leader group and community networking, resource mobilization, dengue working group, community participation, and continuing activities. The application of the new tool consisted of five steps: 1) community preparation, 2) assessment, 3) a community hearing meeting, 4) interventions, and 5) conclusion and improvement step. All stakeholders in the community should use the new tool based on a clear understanding of the measurement objectives, the desired outcomes, resources available and characteristics of their community. If communities need to develop and build dengue community capacity, then the designed pre-post intervention assessments or serial assessments are essential.

341-347

Authors: Ejebe Daniel Emamuzo, Siminialayi Iyeopu Miniakiri, Emudainowho Joseph Oghenebrorie Tedwin, Ofesi Ufouma, Morka Lucky

Objective To investigate the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of the ethanol extract of leaves of Helianthus annus L. (H. annus) in acclimatized Wistar rats. Methods It was undertaken using the albumin induced paw edema model of inflammation as well as both the hotplate and tail immersion analgesic test methods. Doses of the extract tested in experimental rats were 0.5 g/kg, 2 g/kg and 4 g/kg while negative and positive control rats received distilled water and indomethacin respectively. Results It was shown that treatment with the tested doses of the extract effectively inhibited paw edema induced by egg albumin. This effect was comparable if not better than the observations made in rats treated with 10 mg/kg of indomethacin orally. Treatment with the extract was also observed to have significantly increased the mean tolerance time of rats to thermal noxious stimuli compared to control animals that had distilled water and appeared to be more effective than 10 mg/kg of indomethacin treatment. Conclusions These observations confirmed the presence of a strong anti-inflammatory and anti-noiciceptive activity in the ethanol extract of the leaves of H. annus and therefore validated the folkloric use of the leaves of this plant in treatment of pro-inflammatory, post traumatic situations.

351-355

Authors: Seyyed Mansour Seyyednejad, Haniyeh Koochak, Esmaeil Darabpour, Hossein Motamedi

Objective To guide for selection of plants with antibacterial activity for further phytochemical works on the isolation and identification of the active compounds. Methods Ethanolic extracts of 3 species from Malvaceae family were evaluated by agar disc diffusion method for antibacterial activity against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus anthracis, Escherichia coli Streptococcus pyogenes). The extracts were obtained from aerial parts of Hibiscus rosa (H. rosa)-sinensis (leaf and flower), Alcea rosea (A. rosea) L. (leaf and flower) and Malva neglecta (M. neglecta) Wallr (flower). Results These extracts had inhibitory effects at different concentrations (0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 0.40 g/mL) against above mentioned bacteria. Escherichia coli was the most resistant strain. The highest inhibitory zone was showed by ethanolic extract of M. neglecta against Staphylococcus epidermidis (22 mm) and followed by ethanolic extract from flower of H. rosa against Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus (20 mm). The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) values against Staphylococcus epidermidis were equal (MIC=MBC=5 mg/mL for M. neglecta extract and for H. rosa extract MIC=MBC=20 mg/mL). Conclusions These findings suggest that these native plants have good antibacterial properties that can be used for infection control and treatment and could also be as new source for antibiotics discovery and infection treatment.

360-363

Authors: Vatandoost Hasasan, Zahirnia Amir Hossein

Objective To determine the susceptibility of main malaria vector in Astra County, borderline of Iran and Republic of Azerbaijan for better control. Methods Susceptibility of Anopheles maculipennis to diagnostic doses of DDT 4%, dieldrin 0.4%, malathion 5%, lambdacyhalothrin 0.1%, and delamethrin 0.025%, was tested according to method recommended by WHO. All the impregnated papers were provided by WHO. Results It was shown that this species exhibited resistance to DDT, dieldrin, whereas susceptible to malathrion, lambdacyhalothrin and deltamethrin. Conclusions Findings of susceptibility tests of this species provided a clue for control of malaria vector in the region.

367-370

Authors: Naushad A Dilkash, Trivendra Tripathi, Aijaz Ahmed Khan, Mohd Shahid, Haris M Khan, Mashiatullah Siddiqui, Rahat Ali Khan

Objective To explore the exact role of histamine receptors in respiratory system. Methods The cohort comprised of six groups (group I control and group II-VI treated) containing five rabbits in each group. Control-group received vehicle (sterile distilled water) and treated groups received subcutaneous histamine (100 μg/kg, b.i.d.), and H1R-agonist (HTMT), H2R-agonist (amthamine), H3R-agonist (R-(−)-α-methylhistamine) and H4R-agonist (clobenpropit) each in a dose of 10 μg/kg, b.i.d. for 30 subsequent days. After completion of treatment, animals were euthanized and perfused with 10% buffered formalin. Small tissue blocks of trachea and lungs were processed for paraffin embedding. Observations were recorded in sample photomicrographs taken from 10 μm thick. Haematoxylin and eosin stained sections. Results It was observed that trachea and bronchi from histamine, H1R and H4R groups had only patches of hyperplastic and hypertrophied epithelium and in general, cells in the affected region were taller heaped up. The bronchiolar epithelia from all treated groups showed hypertrophy and hyperplasia throughout with most of the cells having rounded profile and appeared to bud out from the basal cells. Conclusions It is concluded that histamine receptors on induction via its specific agonist can induce hypertrophy, hyperplasia of respiratory tract epithelia suggesting its role akin to growth stimulating factor and warranting further long-term study.

374-378

Authors: SP Simi, R Saraswathi, C Sankar, PN Krishnan, C Dilip, K Ameena

Objective To formulate and evaluate Albendazole microcapsules using chitosan, a natural polymer for colon-specific delivery for better treatment of helminthiasis, filariasis, colorectal cancer, avoiding the side effects. Methods The Albendazole microcapsules were prepared by the use of different concentrations of sodium alginate, chitosan and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). The polysaccharides chitosan reacted with sodium alginate in the presence of calcium chloride to form microcapsules with a polyelectrolyte complex membrane by electrostatic interactions between the two oppositely charged polymers. The microcapsules were then studied for entrapment efficiency, drug-polymer compatibility and surface morphology. In vitro drug release study in presence and absence of cecal content were also studied. Further, kinetic modellings were employed to find out release mechanisms. Results Albendazole loaded microspheres showd high entrapment efficiency (72.8%) and the microcapsules were free flowing, non aggregated and spherical, between 600 and 1000 μm in diameter. The surface of microcapsules were found to be porous and wavy. The FT-IR spectrum showed that there is no interaction between the polymer and the drug. The in vitro drug release study found to be affected by change in chitosan, sodium alginate and HPMC concentration. The microcapsules with 2.5% sodium alginate and 0.4% chitosan shown minimum release in gastrointestinal simulated condition but shows maximum drug release at the end of 24th hour in presence of cecal content. The rate of drug release follows Korsmeyer-peppas model that was the drug release is by diffusion and erosion. Conclusions The study reveals that Albendazole loaded chitosan-alginate based microsphere can be used effectively for the colon targeting.

382-385

Authors: EE Okwori, SI Nwadioha, GTA Jombo, EOP Nwokedi, MS Odimayo

Objective To determine the common bacterial causes of urinary tract infection and their antibiotic susceptibility pattern in AIDS patients versus non-AIDS patients. Methods One thousand consecutive AIDS patients with signs and symptoms of AIDS and non-AIDS patients (served as control) each on admission were recruited into the study between January 2005 to January 2008, in Federal Medical Center, Makurdi. Urine samples were collected with sterile universal bottles and analysed with appropriate laboratory methods and antibiotic susceptibility test was carried out by disk diffusion technique in accordance with National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS, now CLSI) criteria. The results were analysed using SPSS 11.0 statistical software. Results Urine samples of AIDS patients with urinary infection had a more spectrum of micro-organisms including Candida organisms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Ceftriaxone, Ceftazidime or Ciprofloxacin had a remarkably high anti-bacterial activity across the two study groups. A general resistance was recorded in ampicillin, tetracycline and co-trimoxazole. There was no significant difference in antibiotic susceptibility patterns between AIDS and non-AIDS patients (P>0.05). Conclusions A reduction in unnecessary use of antibiotics as well as infection control should be encouraged in our health facilities.

392-394

Authors: Elhassan M Elhassan, Abd Elrahium D Haggaz, Mamoun M Magzoub, Ishag Adam

Abstract Objective To investigate the accuracy of malaria diagnosis among pregnant women admitted in Medani Maternity Hospital, Central Sudan during June–October 2009 and to investigate the antimalarials prescribed in this setting. Methods Socio-demographic characteristics and obstetrics history were gathered using pre-tested questionnaires. The finger prick blood samples were collected from pregnant women who admitted as malaria case after an initial microscopic test done by general microscopists for malaria diagnosis. The antimalarial treatment prescribed by treating doctor was inquired for. Results Only 21 (8.6%) out of 243 pregnant women admitted as malaria case after an initial microscopic test done by general microscopists for malaria were found to have blood film positive. There was no significant difference in the specificity of the microscopy accuracy between those who have been investigated in the private and governmental sector, 15/193 (8.2%) vs. 6/60(10%), (P >0.05). Quinine infusion was the prescribed drug in this setting. Conclusions There is a very poor specificity of malaria microscopy in pregnant women admitted to Madani Maternity Hospital. Quinine was the drug received. Malaria control programme should interfere urgently to change this situation.

399-401

Authors: Seyyed Mohammad Hasan Aletayeb, Bashir Chomeili, Mehri Taheri, Tahereh Ziaei Kajbaf, Mehran Hakimzadeh, Majid Aminzadeh, Morteza Shojaei Moghadam, Susan Maleki

Abstract Objective To collect comprehensive information about the features of favic patients in Ahvaz (Capital of Khouzestan, Iran) and analyze the extent of the differences with their corresponding in other regions. Methods A total of 103 patients with acute hemolysis admitted to pediatric division of Abouzar Hospital located in the city of Ahvaz, Iran during 21st of June 2008 to 20th of June 2009 were analyzed retrospectively. Results 95.14% of the patients had favism while 4.86% of them underwent hemolysis due to other reasons. These patients were male (68.93%) and female children (31.06%) admitted mostly during the spring season. The three main symptoms were urine discoloration, jaundice and vomiting. At the admission time, the main hematologic findings were as follows: G6PD sufficient status (45.63%), G6PD deficient status (54.36%) and hemoglobin concentration: 2.5–11.8 (mean±SD: 6.45 ±2.12) g/dL. Conclusions In conclusion, Ahvaz was determined as a black zone for favism in which the disease can be considered a life threatening health problem. Moreover, slight differences were observed in the three main symptoms compared with favic patients in other regions.

407-409

Authors: Myla Yacob, Edwin Stephen, Nupur Bit, Mazda Turel, David Sadhu, Sunil Agarwal

Objective To identify and compare the existence of similar and other risk factors in the perspective of an Indian population. Methods It was designed as a case control study and was conducted in the Department of General and Vascular Surgery Unit 2 of Christian Medical College, Vellore, India between the periods July 2003 to June 2005. 100 patients with an ABPI< 0.9 and 100 controls were studied. Results Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) was found to be commoner among males (87%). While atherosclerosis was the commonest aetiology (54%), the incidence of Thromboangiitis Obliterans was also not uncommon (38%). Smoking was the main risk factor in the Indian context (83%) as compared to hypercholesterolemia (60%) in the West. The patients with atherosclerotic PAD were middle-aged and had concomitant diabetes (50%) and hypertension (30%). Conclusions Peripheral arterial disease occurs in a relatively younger age group in India as compared to their Western counterparts. Thromboangiitis Obliterans was found to be a significant aetiology for arterial occlusive disease, with smoking as the primary risk factor followed by diabetes, hypertension and hypercholesterolemia.

412-420

Authors: Khadjavi Amina, Giribaldi Giuliana, Mauro Prato

More than 2 billion people are at risk of malaria, which primarily affects poor populations in tropical and subtropical areas, including Southern Asia. As malaria incidence has been reduced strongly in some parts of endemic regions by combinations of interventions, including artemisinin-based therapies and insecticide-treated bed nets, a new goal has been established recently by charity foundations which support research on malaria: the worldwide eradication of the pathology. Doing away with control approaches which have been applied for the last 50 years and more focus on elimination objectives will deeply change priorities in the area of malaria treatment, chemoprevention, vector control, vaccine research and health system assessment. In this review, actual knowledge on pathogenesis and pharmacology is discussed, and new drugs, vaccines and insecticides are described.

257-261

Authors: Alaa Tawfeek Refaat, Abdelaaty Abdelaziz Shahat, Nermine Ahmed Ehsan, Nemat Yassin, Faiza Hammouda, Elsayed Abou Tabl, Shams Imbabi Ismail

Objective To evaluate the cardiac activity and hepatoprotection of Crataegus sinaica (C. sinaica). Methods All the isolated compounds were isolated by open-column liquid chromatography (CC) using sephadex LH-20 as stationary phase. Elution of the column was performed with EtOH or MeOH. The phytochemical investigation of the young stem of C. sinaica for the first time together with the leaves and flowers lead to the isolation and identification of quercetin, hyperoside, vitexin-2″-O-rhamnoside, epicatechin, procyanidin B2 and procyanidins C1. Results Rats treated with the low and high dose of C. sinaica leaves with flowers extract showed 15% and 17% reduction in the heart rate, and reduction in the ST-segment by 107% and 57%; respectively. The T-amplitude was decreased by 59% of the high dose extract. On the other hand, the young stems and leaves with flowers extracts of C. sinaica on primary culture of rat hepatocytes monolayer indicated a hepatoprotection for the total extract, ethyl acetate, butanol, and chloroform fractions at 100 μg/mL, 75 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL, and 25μg/mL; respectively. Conclusions The results of these chemical and biological studies suggest the use of C. sinaica growing in Egypt as a preventive drug against cardiovascular and hepatic diseases. The chemical studies suggest the use of woody young stems as a newly investigated bioactive organ. The extraction of unsaturated fatty acids from the seeds of the plant would serve as a good health and nutritive product.

266-269

Authors: Ghaleb Adwan, Bassam Abu-Shanab, Kamel Adwan

Objective To evaluate the possible in vitro interaction between ethanolic extracts of Rhus coriaria (R. coriaria) (seed), Sacropoterium spinosum (S. spinosum) (seed), Rosa damascena (R. damascene) (flower) and certain known antimicrobial drugs including oxytetracycline HCl, penicillin G, cephalexin, sulfadimethoxine as sodium, and enrofloxacin. This synergy study was carried out against 3 clinical strains of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa). Methods Evaluation of synergy interaction between plant extracts and antimicrobial agents was carried out using microdilution method. Results The results of this study showed that there is a decrease in the MIC in case of combination of ethanolic plant extracts and test antimicrobial agents. The most interesting result was that the combination between R. coriaria and these antibiotics, showed a high decrease in minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and a strong bactericidal activity against these strains. Conclusions These results may indicate that combinations between R. coriaria extract and these antibiotics could be useful in fighting emerging drug-resistance P. aeruginosa, which may due to that R. coriaria extract contain natural inhibitors working by different mechanisms or inhibiting efflux pumps. Now we have experiments underway leading to the identification of the active molecules present in R. coriaria. Further, in vivo experiments are needed to confirm pseudomonal protection.

276-277

Authors: Salim Abadi Yaser, Vatandoost Hassan, Rassi Yavar, Abai Mohammad Reza, Sanei Dehkordi Ali Reza, Paksa Azim

Objective To evaluate the entomological impact of chlorpyrifos-methyl, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Gambusia affinis on mosquitoes control in artificial breeding places. Methods A Latin square design with 4 replicates was performed in order to evaluate the efficacy of chlorpyrifosmethyl, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Gambusia affinis on larva. The larvicide was applied at the dosage of 100 mg a.h/ha, Bacillus thuringiensis at the recommended dosage and 10 fishes per m2 were applied at 1×1 m2 artificial breeding sites. The larval densities for both anopheline and culicine were counted according to larvae /10 dippers prior and 24 h after application. Results All three control agents are effective for mosquito density reduction, and the difference between the three agents and the control is significant (P<0.05). There is also significant difference among chlorpyrifos-methyl, Bacillus thuringiensis and Gambusia affinis. Bacillus thuringiensis exhibited more reduction on mosquito larval density than fish and larvicide (P<0.05). Conclusions Bacillus thuringiensis in comparison with two other agents is the appropriate method for larviciding in the breeding places. Although long term assessing for biological activities as well as monitoring and mapping of resistance is required.

283-287

Authors: Afonso de Almeida, Virgílio E do Rosário, Ana Paula Arez, Pedro Cravo

Objective To investigate malaria prevalence and socio-economic conditions in East Timor. Methods Blood samples were collected from 650 individuals distributed among six districts in East Timor. 434 and 216 individuals were sampled by passive and active case detection, respectively (PCD, ACD). Results The results showed that the plasmodium infection prevalence was 18.9% with predominance of Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) infections (60.2%). The majority of cases were detected in children between 2-14 years old in both PCD and ACD. Participants residing in Same and Lospalos were at a higher risk of malaria. The percentage of infections associated to the lack of bed net use was twice as high as users (25.2% vs 12.5%). The prevalence of malaria among participants who lived in brick/cement houses (8.3%) was two times less than those who lived in other types of houses (3.7%). There was a significantly lower prevalence of infection detected in individuals living in complete housing constructions with absence of domestic animals in or near the houses. Conclusions The major risk factors for malaria in East Timor are age, lack of bed net use, incomplete housing constructions and exposure to mosquitoes.

292-293

Authors: Abdel-aziz M. Ahmed, Azam A Afifi, Elfatih M Malik, Ishag Adam

Objective To determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) among primary schoolchildren in El dhayga, Central Sudan. Methods In this cross-sectional study, three fresh faecal samples were collected from each child, which were examined by direct wet mount, brine flotation, formalin–ether and Kato–Katz techniques. The intensity of each STH infection was expressed as the mean of eggs per gram counts of the three samples. Results In total, 142 (90.4%) of 157 children harboured at least one type of intestinal parasite. Ascaris lumbricoides, Hymenolepis nana, Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia were the most common parasites found, with prevalence rates of 32.5%, 30.6%, 33.1% and 19.7%, respectively. Out of these 157 children, 29 (18.5%) harboured more than two intestinal parasitic infections. No cases of Schistosoma mansoni or Enterobius vermicularis were identified. Conclusions The study demonstrates significant burden of intestinal protozoa and STH infections in this part of Sudan and highlights the need for preventive and intervention measures.

298-301

Authors: Udonwa NE, Gyuse AN, Etokidem AJ, Ogaji DST

bjective To determine the degree of client satisfaction with immunisation services at Primary Health facilities in Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria. Method A semi-structured questionnaire was administered on 402 caregivers who were selected using systematic random sampling from four primary health centres. The four centres were randomly selected from the 19 health centres using the table of random numbers. Data obtained were analysed using Epi-Info software version 2002. Results The majority of clients were dissatisfied with most aspects of care given at the Health Care Centres including long waiting time, accessibility of immunisation services, poor respect for clients' rights, especially to their dignity, health information and counseling on their medical needs. Conclusions The study concludes that client satisfaction with immunization service in Calabar was low due to poor attitude of health care providers, long waiting time and lack of respect for clients' rights.

310-314

Authors: Arun Kumar

Objective To investigate the effect of simvastatin treatment on lipid profile and oxidative stress in hypercholesterolaemic Indian population and determine the effect of simvastatin treatment on the activity of paraoxonase (PON). Methods Analyzed initially before medication administration and four months later after medication. Lipid and lipoprotein measurement were done by enzymatic kits, high density lipoprotein (HDL) was determined by phosphotungstic acid precipitation method and low density lipoprotein (LDL) was calculated by Friedewald's formula. Lipid peroxidation was measured by three markers namely, conjugated diene, total peroxide, and malondialdehyde. Conjugated diene was assayed by Buege and Aust method. Total peroxide was determined by FOX2 method. Malondialdehyde determination was carried out by Flemming method and total antioxidant status was determined by Ozacan. Paraoxonase activity was determined by measuring the absorbance inrease of p-nitrophenol at 405 nm. Arylesterase activity was calculated from the molar coefficient of 1 310 M−1 cm−1. Results Simvastatin significantly reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, conjugated diene, total peroxide and MDA levels, where as antioxidant status was significantly increased. Besides, simvastatin significantly increased PON1 activity towards paraoxon. Conclusions The results from the current study indicate simvastatin may have important antioxidant properties via increasing PON activity.

318-321

Authors: Esmaeil Darabpour, Mohammad Roayaei Ardakani, Hossein Motamedi, Gholamreza Ghezelbash, Mohammad Taghi Ronagh

Objective To investigate the isolation of marine antibiotic-producing bacteria from the Persian Gulf, as an untapped source for searching new natural antibiotics. Methods Initially water and sediment samples were collected from 18 study sites in the some northern areas of Persian Gulf. All of the bacterial isolates using Marine Agar 2216 were inoculated into Marine broth and incubated on a rotary shaker at 28 °C for 2-7 days. Bioactivity of their ethyl acetate extract was assessed at 100 mg/mL concentration in disc diffusion method against 6 gram-positive and 5 gram-negative bacteria. Synthetic antibiotics were used as control. Results Altogether, 46 bacterial colonies were isolated. Only one isolate from a marine sediment sample collected at a depth of 10 m, identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa PG-01, was exhibited the capability of antibiotic production. The obtained raw extract from intended bacterium was effective against all tested gram positive bacteria while gram negative bacteria were resistance. Methicillin resisitant Stapuylococcus aureus (MRSA), Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes), Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) and Bacillus cereus (B. cereus) were the most sensitive strains. All of tested pathogens were multidrug resistant. The antibacterial compound from this bacterium was active even at 120 °C. The optimized temperature and time for antibacterial metabolite production were 37 °C and 72 hrs, respectively. Conclusions Considering the antibacterial effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PG-01 especially against MRSA, it can be regarded the intended bacterium as a valuable strain and can give hope for treatment of diseases caused by multidrug resistant bacteria.

328-329

Authors: Soham Gupta, Vishnu Prasad Shenoy, Indira Bairy, S Muralidharan

Objective To investigate the application of Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) and fluorescent microscopy in detection of acid fast bacilli (AFB). Methods Duplicate smears were prepared from 260 sputum samples and stained with Z-N and fluorescent staining (FS) methods. The efficiency of both methods in primary diagnosis of tuberculosis were evaluated. Results The smears were positive for AFB in 15 (5.77%) samples by Z-N staining method and in 16 (6.15%) samples by FS method. The sensitivity and specificity of Z-N staining method against FS method were 93.75% and 100% respectively. Conclusions Though lesser cost-effective than Z-N, FS method is a more sensitive and better case finding tool in detection of AFB.

332-336

Authors: Márcia Calheiros Chaves Silva, Antonio Batista da Silva, Fabiano Moura Teixeira, Paulo Cesar Pereira de Sousa, Regina Maria Macedo Rondon, José Eduardo Ribeiro Honório Júnior, Luiz Rafael Leite Sampaio, Samanda Lima Oliveira, Angela Nadyla Martins Holonda, Silvânia Maria Mendes de Vasconcelos

Medicinal plants have been used to treat various ailments of the poor population around the world; hence the interest among researchers to know the active ingredients of certain plants has being increased. The Calotropis procera (C. procera) is a plant original from Africa, commonly found in northeastern Brazil. It is well known for their pharmacological properties, since it produces large amounts of latex. The important role that medicinal plants play in folk medicine has led us to develop this article in order to review the major pharmacological activities of C. procera.

173-175

Authors: AK Mukhopadhyay, W Tamizharasu, Babu P Satya, G Chandra, AK Hati

Objective To observe the effect of common salt (NaCl) on immature stages of laboratory reared Aedes aegypti (L). Methods A laboratory colony of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes of Rajahmundry strain was established in the laboratory of National Institute for Communicable Disease (NICD), Rajahmundry unit at (26 ± 2) °C with relative humidity of (70 ± 10)%. 1.00%, 1.25% and 1.50% solutions of common salt (NaCl) were selected to observe the susceptibility status of immature stages of Aedes aegypti in laboratory. Results Fifty percent larvae of Aedes aegypti died within 19, 31 and 48 hours when exposed to 1.50%, 1.25% and 1.00% common salt solution, respectively. Ninety percent of the larvae died within 29, 57 and 108 hours when exposed to the same salt solutions, respectively. Very high pupal mortality was observed varying from 81.8% to 40.0%. Formation of pupae was found inversely proportional in the presence of concentration of common salt in breeding water. Conclusions With easy availability, less toxicity and long lasting nature, common salt may be applied in unused containers, especially in junkyards where surveillance mechanism is poor along with other conventional vector control methods in order to control breeding of Aedes aegypti, the vector of dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever and chikungunya.

180-184

Authors: Haniyeh Koochak, Seyyed Mansour Seyyednejad, Hussein Motamedi

Objective To search for antimicrobial agents among natural products. Methods Ethanolic extracts of 4 plant species, including Beta vulgaris L. (Chenopodiaceae), Amaranthus graecizans (A. graecizans) L. (Amaranthaceae), Rumex obtusifolius (R. obtusifolius) L. and Polygonum patulum (P. patulum) M.B. (Polygonaceae), were evaluated for antibacterial activity using agar disc diffusion method against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes), Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), Salmonella typhi (S. typhi), Bacillus cereus (B. cereus), Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Streptococcus pyogenes (Str. pyogenes)]. These extracts were obtained from aerial parts of the used plants. Results The majority of these extracts had inhibitory effect at different concentrations (0.05 g/mL, 0.10 g/mL, 0.20 g/mL and 0.40 g/mL) against above mentioned bacteria. E. coli was the most resistant strain. The highest inhibitory zone was showed by ethanolic extract of P. patulum against Str. pyogenes (28 mm) and followed by ethanolic extract of B. vulgaris against S. epidermidis (23 mm). The extract of A. graecizans didn't show inhibitory activity except at 0.40 g/mL against B. cereus. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values of R. obtusifolius extract that was measured against Str. pyogenes were equal (MIC=MBC=5.00mg/mL). Conclusion The findings of this study could also be as new source for antibiotics discovery and infection treatment.

189-192

Authors: TC Okoye, PA Akah, CO Okoli, AC Ezike, FN Mbaoji

Objective To investigate the antimicrobial activity of the methanol leaf extract (ME), n-hexane fraction (HF), ethylacetate fraction (EF) and methanol fraction (MF), of Stachytarpheta cayennensis C. Rich (verbenaceae) as well as to ascertain the antispasmodic effects of the ME and the various fractions (HF, EF and MF) on acetylcholine (Ach) and histamine (H) induced contractions on isolated guinea pig ileum. Methods The in vitro agar well diffusion method was used for the antimicrobial studies while the isolated tissue method was employed for the antispasmodic test. Organisms used were all clinical isolates of Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella paratyphi, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Results The extract and fractions exhibited dose dependent inhibition against all the bacteria tested and also exhibited insignificant antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extract and fractions (mg/mL) on Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella paratyphi respectively were ME 5.62, 14.12, 22.38, 2.11; EF 1.25, 6.30, 9.40, 9.40 and MF 3.98, 8.81, 39.80, 21.13. The n-hexane fraction exhibited MIC of 1.07 mg/mL against only Bacillus subtilis. The extract and fractions exhibited significant (P< 0.05) dose dependent attenuation of contractions induced by acetylcholine and histamine on isolated guinea pig ileum. Concentrations of the extract and fractions (μg/mL) which evoked 50% inhibition of maximal response exhibited by Ach were ME 0.64, HF 0.16, EF 0.08 and MF 0.15, while that of histamine included ME 5.12, HF 0.16, EF 0.04 and MF 0.64. Preliminary phytochemical studies on the extract and fractions indicated the presence of carbohydrates, alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, steroids and terpenoids. Conclusions The extract and fractions of Stachytarpheta cayennensis possessed both antibacterial and antispasmodic effects confirming the claimed use in folkloric medicine for wound healing and gastrointestinal ulceration.

196-199

Authors: Patience Ogoamaka Osadebe, Edwin Ogechukwu Omeje, Philip Felix Uzor, Ernest Kenechukwu David, Damian Chiedozie Obiorah

Objective To determine the season in which the Eastern Nigeria mistletoe, Loranthus micranthus, parasitic on Persea americana possesses optimum antidiabetic activity and to determine the seasonal variation in the constituents. Methods The antidiabetic activities of the aqueous methanol extracts of the leaves of Eastern Nigeria mistletoe, Loranthus micranthus, harvested in two seasons of the year, the onset of rainy season (April) and the peak of rainy season (July) were compared. The tests were carried out on six (6) groups (A-F) of alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Groups A and B received 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg of the April sample extracts respectively while groups C and D received same doses of the July sample extracts. Group E and F which were the positive and negative controls received 10 mg/kg of glibenclamide and 2 ml/kg of 3% tween 20 respectively. The blood glucose levels of the animals were monitored hourly with a glucometer for six hours. The phytochemical analysis of the plant extracts were also carried out by standard procedures. Results The results showed that group A and B exhibited significant (P<0.05) percentage reduction in the fasting blood sugar (FBS) level of the animals (38.9% and 39.2% respectively) with maximum reduction observed at the 5th and 6th hour respectively compared to glibenclamide (71.3%). Group C showed no significant (P>0.05) FBS reduction (15.9%) while group D exhibited highly significant (P<0.01) reduction (47.5%) with the maximum reduction occurring after 6 hours. The phytochemical analysis of the crude methanol extracts revealed the presence of carbohydrates, glycosides, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, acidic compounds, resins and oils. These were present in different proportions in both seasons. Conclusions This study shows that there is a seasonal, dose-dependent variation in the chemical composition viz-a-viz the antidiabetic activity of the plant under study. This activity is highest at the peak of the rainy season.

205-210

Authors: PO Nnamani, EC Ibezim, AA Attama, MU Adikwu

Objective To preliminarily investigate three different lipid matrices consisting of two natural homolipids from Capra hircus (goat fat) and Bovine Spp. (tallow fat) and one semi-synthetic lipid (Softisan® 142) separately structured with Phospholipon® 90G (P90G) as potential delivery systems for poorly water soluble drugs. Methods The structured lipid matrices were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and employed to prepare solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) by the melt homogenization method using gradient concentrations of polysorbate 80 and at different emulsification times of 2, 5 and 10 min using a Silverson mixer. The SLMs were analyzed for morphology and particle size, thermal properties, stability studies and determination of injectability. Results The results showed that SLM production was optimum at 5 % of lipid matrices, 1.5 % of polysorbate 80 and emulsification time of 5 min. Increase in polysorbate 80 concentrations decreased the particle size of the SLMs. The SLMs were well formed, spherical, smooth and non-porous with particle sizes in the ranges of (13.90 ± 2.10) μm - (0.09 ± 0.01) μm for SLMs produced from the structured - tallow fat; (13.40 ± 1.30) μm - (0.10 ± 0.01) μm for the structured - goat fat and (13.40±2.00) μm - (2.10± 1.00)μm for the structured Softisan® 142 lipid matrices. DSC traces showed that Softisan® 142 was the most crystalline of all three bulk matrices due to its high enthalpy (−7.962 mW/mg) while tallow fat was the least (−5.067 mW/mg) but addition of P90G to the matrices lowered their enthalpies mostly in the structured goat fat matrices. The SLMs when stored at 4-6 ° were most stable and syringeable with 27 G needle. Conclusions This suggests that structured goat fat matrices with the enthalpy of −2.813 mW/mg will mostly favour drug loading of some poorly soluble drugs more than tallow fat (−4.892 mW/mg) and Softisan® 142 (−5.501 mW/mg).

215-219

Authors: Charuai Suwanbamrung, Noppamas Nukan, Sarapee Sripon, Ratana Somrongthong, Phechnoy Singchagchai

Objective To assess the level of community capacity for dengue prevention and control and to study household environments and larval indices in southern Thailand. Methods A cross-sectional survey was designed for the study, enrolling two communities with higher dengue incidence rate than the standard over the past five years. Data gathering was conducted by the dengue leader group (DLG), including 15 leaders and 15 non-leaders trained by the research team. The dengue community capacity assessment tool (DCCAT) for leaders (115 items, 14 domains) and non-leaders (83 items, 11 domains). Participants were selected by the DLG based on their communities' dengue risk. In the low-dengue incidence (LDI) community, 32 leaders and 177 non-leaders were selected; while in the high-dengue incidence (HDI) community, 31 leaders and 199 non-leaders were chosen. Results The leaders from the LDI and the HDI communities demonstrated high levels of dengue community-capacity (360.47±58.82, 416.22±57.72). Non-leaders in the LDI community demonstrated a moderate level of dengue community capacity competence (205.90±60.76), while the non-leaders in the HDI community had a high level (254.78±50.34). Conclusions These initial levels of dengue community capacity serves as a baseline for diagnosing each community. For a community that needed to improve its capacity, the DCCAT is essential tool to conduct a pre-post intervention assessment or a serial assessment. A participatory approach is taken to enable local communities to carry out anti-dengue efforts on their own, rather than have intervention by an outsider.

224-231

Authors: M Bandyopadhyay, A Bhakta, S Chakrabarty, M Pal, P Bharati

Objective To determine the relationship of the capacity to produce interferon gamma (IFN-γ) in whole blood, bacteriological, hematological, radiographic and clinical presentations in new, HIV seronegative cases of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). Methods 80 cases and 50 control subjects aged 15 years onwards, representative of Kasturba Hospital and Nursing schools of Wardha district of Maharashtra state in India were examined for their health condition with standard methodology. Results Among these TB patients, 73.8% were Quantiferon-TB gold (QFT) positive with IFN-γ concentration as 0.35 IU or more and there was none in healthy controls. The mean IFN-γ concentrations varied between 9.58 IU (50-59 yrs) and 2.58 IU (⩾60 yrs), showing no trend. The differences in positivity and mean IFN-γconcentrations were statistically insignificant. Both the QFT positivity and IFN-γconcentrations were higher in normal lymphocyte percent as compared to below and above normal, but differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions The IFN-γconcentrations are not correlated with any of the predictors of disease severity studied, the levels are significantly higher in observation group as compared to healthy group.

235-236

Authors: Siddiqui R, Siti Asma H

Objective: To produce a technique for the growth of Campylobacter jejuni in aerobic condition Methods: Different combinations of reducing agents were tested in brucella broth and the growth turbidity was compared with tubes containing normal broth only. Microaerophilic environment was also provided in a petri plate seeded with Campylobacter culture by pouring 3 different concentrations (10%, 5% and 2.5%) of five reducing agents along with bacto-agar in the lid which was used to cover and seal the culture plate. Six reducing agents were also added in broth in concentration of 0.25 mg/mL of each with different combinations. Results: In lid agar technique, Campylobacter jejuni growth appeared in all three concentrations of reducing agents, that is 10%, 5% and 2.5% after 24 hours of incubation but the best results were observed in 10% concentration. The colonial and morphological characters were not affected when the organisms were grown by this technique. Conclusions: It was found that reducing agents enhance the growth of C. jejuni/coli. In combination of FeSO4, Na2CO3 with H3BO3 worked as ideal mixture for the aerobic growth of Campylobacter. This technique is more economical as compared to commercially available media in the market and can be used for the oral facultative and microaerophilic bacterial growth in laboratory.

241-243

Authors: Rashidi Ahmad, Azhar Amir Hamzah, Ahmad Kasfi Abdul Rahman, Phee Kheng Cheah

Melioidosis is an unusual tropical infectious disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, which was formerly known as Pseudomonas pseudomallei. Melioidosis is characterized by abscess formation and it may manifest in any part of the human body, however, musculoskeletel melioidosis is uncommon and chest wall melioidosis is very rare. To determine the exact organism based solely on clinical presentation poses a great challenge to the physician. Yet, delay administration of antibiotic may be harmful. We describe a diabetic patient who had anterior chest wall melioidosis that mimics Staphylococcus aureus infection. A description of his presentation and management, along with a review of literature is presented.

90-93

Authors: Marchenko V Yu, Alekseev A Yu, Tserennorov D, Yurlov AK, Susloparov IM, Sharshov KA, Ilyinykh FA, Zolotykh SI, Abmed D, Otgonbaatar D, Shestopalov AM

Objective To present results of virological study of wild birds inhabiting Western Mongolia. Methods Over a period of 2003–2008, we isolated 13 influenza A viruses: H1N1, H3N6, H13N8 and H4N6 subtypes. We did not isolate any H5N1 subtype, that still cause epizooty in wild birds and poultry. Results We revealed taxonomic and ecological heterogeneity of the birds involved in maintenance of circulation of influenza viruses in the given territory. Influenza viruses were isolated from birds of 6 orders; among them there are species preferring water and semi-aquatic biotopes, one species preferring dry plain region, and also one species which can inhabit both dry and water biotopes. Conclusions Representatives of all main orders of Western Mongolia avifauna are involved in support of influenza A virus circulation, highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses were registered in Mongolia thus it's necessary to continue permanent influenza virus surveillance in wild birds' populations.

101-104

Authors: AW Obianime, FI Uche

Objective To investigate the phytochemical screening and the effects of the aqueous extracts of the seeds of Irvingia gabonensis on the biochemical parameters of male guinea pigs. Methods The biochemical parameters were assayed using Randox Diagnostic kits, Phenolphthalein method and colorimetric method. The phytochemical screening was carried out using standard procedures. Results Phytochemical investigations revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrate, alkaloids, terpenoids, steroids, volatile oils, saponins and cardiac glycosides. The aqueous extract of Irvingia gabonensis seeds (50–400 mg/kg) caused a statistically significant (P<0.05 ANOVA) decrease in the levels of total cholesterol, urea, uric acid, total protein, prostatic, alkaline, and acid phosphatases. The highest reduction effect was obtained with uric acid at 400 mg/kg of Irvingia gabonensis extract while the least effect was observed in total cholesterol. These effects were dose-and time-dependent. Conclusions This shows that the seeds of Irvingia gabonensis have hepatoprotective, nephroprotective and cardio protective properties. The study therefore, supports the claims on the use of the seeds of this plant by traditional medicine practitioners as a hepatoprotective and nephroprotective agent. Although further studies need to be done to isolate, identify and characterize the active principles in the seeds of this plant.

109-111

Authors: Zhang Xiao-po, Pei Yue-hu, Liu Ming-sheng, Kang Sheng-li, Zhang Jun-qing

Objective To study the chemical constituents in leaves of Cebera manghas. Methods Chemical constituents were isolated by using various column chromatography and the structures were elucidated on basis of physicochemical constants and spectral data analysis. Results Nine compounds were obtained including p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (1), benzamide (2), n-hexadecane acid monoglyceride(3), loliolide(4), β-sitosterol(5), cerberin(6), neriifolin(7), cerleaside A(8), daucosterol (9). Conclusions Compounds 1–4 are obtained from this genus for the first time.

117-120

Authors: Deepa Karthikeyan, M Karthikeyan

Objective To develop floating microspheres of cefpodoxime proxetil (CP) in order to achieve an extended retention in the upper GIT for 12 hour. Methods The microspheres were prepared by non aqueous solvent evaporation method using different ratios of cefpodoxime proxetil, hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC K4M) and ethyl cellulose (1:1:1, 1:1:2, 1:1:3, 1:1:4, 1:1:5 & 1:1:6), in the mixture of dichloromethane and ethanol at ratio of (1:1), with tween80 as the surfactant. Results The floating microspheres was extended over 10–12 hours and were characterized by particle size analysis (75–600μm), buoyancy percentage (68.1%–85.4%), drug entrapment efficiency (67.5%–88.8%), % yield (50.50%–77.31%) and in vitro drug release was studied for 12 hours. Conclusions The floating microspheres show better result and it may be use full for prolong the drug release in stomach and improve the bioavailability.

124-127

Authors: Esmaeil Darabpour, Hossein Motamedi, Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Nejad

Objective To explore the antibacterial effect of the alcoholic extracts of aerial parts of Teucrium polium, native in Iran on some pathogenic bacteria. Methods Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract (50 to 400 mg/mL) and methanolic extract (400 and 600 mg/mL) was evaluated by disc diffusion method. Results The ethanolic extract results showed that Bacillus anthracis was the most sensitive species, while Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis were more resistant than others. In the case of the methanolic extract, Bordetella bronchiseptica was the most sensitive and Proteus mirabilis and Arcanobacterium pyogenes were the most resistant species. The hydroalcoholic extract of Teucrium polium had a relatively satisfactory effect on Salmonella typhi. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi was 40 mg/mL and Bordetella bronchiseptica and Bacillus anthracis was 10 mg/mL. The minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) against Bacillus anthracis was 10 mg/mL while against other species were not found (>200 mg/mL). The methanolic extract had also synergistic effect with methicillin, vancomycin against Staphylococcus aureus and with novobiocin against Salmonella typhi. Conclusions These results suggest that this plant contains relatively good antibacterial activity and it can be used as a source of antiseptic compounds for medicinal uses.

133-135

Authors: OA Georgewill, UO Georgewill, RNP Nwankwoala

Objective To investigate the acute and delayed anti-inflammatory effects of Morning oleifera lam (MOL) crude methanolic extract. Methods Compared the anti-inflammatory effects of MOL with that of standard anti-inflammatory agents like indomethacin and hydrocortisone using Air Pouch Model. Results In both acute and delayed inflammation, the MOL extract produced dose dependent anti-inflammatory effect [acute IC50= (399.30 ±5.43) mg/kg; delayed IC50= (510.26±4.53) mg/kg]. The order of anti-inflammatory potency for the three drugs was hydrocortisone> indomethacin > MOL. Conclusions These observations indicate that MOL possesses potential anti-inflammatory property.

141-144

Authors: AN Gyuse, IE Bassey, NE Udonwa, IB Okokon, EE Philip-Ephraim

Objective To determine the causes of death among human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) patients as a step to planning strategies to improve mortality from this condition. Methods This study retrospectively analyzed the mortality pattern of adult HIV/AIDS patients in the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital from January 2005 to December 2007. The data were obtained from sexually transmitted infection/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (STI/AIDS) clinic register, admissions and discharge/death registers as well as the patients' case records and the hospitals monthly mortality reviews. Information obtained included age, sex, diagnosis and cause(s) of death. The causes of death considered were the direct causes of death, since the originating antecedent cause of death is the same in all the patients, in this case, HIV/AIDS. Data was analysed using Epi Info 2002. Results The total number of mortalities during the study period was 350,100 were HIV positive representing 28.6% of all deaths. While advanced HIV/AIDS disease was the leading cause of death in our study representing 27.0%, tuberculosis was the single leading cause of deaths in HIV/AIDS patients constituting about 24.0% of deaths. This was followed by sepsis and septicaemia (13.0%), meningitis and encephalitis, and anaemia accounting for 11.0%, while respiratory diseases constituted 5.0% of the mortality burden. The highest number of deaths occurred in those aged between 21–50 years (82.0%). Conclusions The study has shown that HIV/AIDS is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in our hospital. The causes of death reflect the varied spectrum of infection and other forms of organ involvement that affect HIV/AIDS patients. The present dismal situation of adult patients living with HIV/AIDS calls for enhanced strategies to decrease the mortality trend observed in Nigeria and sub-Saharan Africa.

148-149

Authors: Adnan Moh'd Ammoura

Objective To find out the prevalence of intestinal parasites among primary school population (the most vulnerable group) in rural and urban areas in south Jordan. Methods During a medical civic action in the south of Jordan in summer 2000, stool specimens were collected from 2 400 primary school children, aged from 6–12 years, and examined for the detection of intestinal parasitic infection from both urban (1 100 samples) and rural (1 300 samples) areas in south Jordan. Results The results indicated that the overall prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection was 28.5%. It was more in rural (33.2%) than in urban (23.0%) areas, but no sex difference was found. As regard to the type of infection, Giardia lamblia was the commonest intestinal protozoa, with a rate of 42.6%, while Enterobious vermicularis was the commonest helminth recorded in our study with a rate of 5.9%. Conclusions Health education by health and school authorities is recommended, particular attention should be paid to repairing the sewage disposal system as well as water supply, which acts as main source of water pollution.

152-157

Authors: R Mehta, D Kundu, S Chakrabarty, P Bharati

Objective To search adequate epidemiological data on periodontal conditions for the planning of oral health programs in Indian population, and to determine the prevalence of periodontal diseases, in regards to age and gender of urban and rural population in West Bengal, India. Methods 22 542 subjects aged 15 years onwards, representative of rural and urban areas of West Bengal were examined for their periodontal conditions using the community periodontal index (CPI). Results Supra and/or sub gingival calculus dominated as the most frequent score (score 2) among males (76.51%) and females (76.58%), which was least affected in young age group and higher in rural population. Severity of highest score were significant (P < 0.001) according to their gender, age group and habitation and had independent effects (P<0.001) on it. Mean number of sextants affected by scores 1, 2, 3, & 4 were more in the rural areas. Assessed treatment needed was predominantly type II (Scaling and improved oral hygiene). Conclusions The severe periodontal condition (Score 2, 3 and 4) is observed among rural males in older age group more than its urban counterparts of West Bengal, India.

160-166

Authors: Arpad Z Barabas, Chad D Cole, Arpad D Barabas, Richard M Graeff, Rene Lafreniere, Donald M Weir

Over the years vaccination has proven to be the most successful health protection program for large populations, to prevent them from acquiring serious infectious and contagious diseases caused by exogenous antigens (ags) such as bacteria and viruses. Protection is generally achieved by an active immunization program, though passive immunization has also been employed, especially in the past, to combat diseases caused by certain bacterial infections (e.g. tetanus, diphtheria, etc.). Most recently, encouraging research data suggests that therapeutic approaches employing vaccination techniques can also be used to correct or deal with mishaps induced by or involving endogenous ags. However, most attempts at employing conventional vaccination techniques to do so have proven less than successful. In the case of cancer, one of the reasons for this is that the presentation of cancer related ags in presently available immunization frameworks is unable to evoke a powerful, specific cancer killing response. Therefore, drug treatments have been required in order to achieve additional beneficial effects. Recently, the Barabas group has developed a new vaccination technique (the third vaccination method, after active and passive immunization) called Modified Vaccination Technique (MVT). In experiments the MVT has been able to prevent-and with equal effectiveness, terminate-mishaps induced by or involving endogenous ags, e.g. in an experimental autoimmune kidney disease called slowly progressive Heymann nephritis (SPHN). The MVT is safe, and is able to initiate a specific immune response in the injected host (provided the injected components are in pure form). The MVT promises to provide the next generation of vaccines for the prevention, treatment, and termination of chronic disorders in humans, such as autoimmune diseases, cancer, and chronic infections.