Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

437–456

Authors: Timokhin D.M., Tishin V.V.

Research objectives: Published in 2018, an article by Prof. V.A. Ivanov pointed to a pressing problem regarding the possibility to correlate information provided in written sources with archaeological data, discussing it in the context of issues of localization of nomadic tribal groups in the Desht-i Kipchak in the period preceding the Mongol conquest. The authors of the present article are in agreement with V.A. Ivanov in recognizing this problem. However, they cannot agree with his manner of its presentation. A study of ethnic processes in the Eurasian steppes seems more complex than is presented in V.A. Ivanov’s view. In addition, it seems to the authors that Ivanov’s reproaches to researchers working with written sources are not entirely fair and correct. Research materials: The authors submitted for discussion some of the more significant and indicative issues, in their view, related to the broad problem of identification of nomadic tribal groups of the Desht-i Kipchak. Therefore, they had to resort to both written sources and the body of research works. The foundation of the written sources used here is represented, first of all, by Arabic-Persian historical works. In addition, the data of linguistics and archaeology was also involved in the paper. Results and novelty of the research: Pointing to several of the most illustrative issues in the ethnic history of the Desht-i Kipchak, the authors sought to demonstrate the real lack of unambiguous solutions based on data in written sources. Often real historical problems are dependent on subjective interpretation of texts provided by scholars. At the same time, their results are influenced by a combination of factors – such as the degree of informativeness of written sources as well as the approaches and personal capacities of the researcher. Moreover, the authors of this article express doubts that archaeologists have sufficient material on the history of the Eastern Desht-i Kipchak. Therefore, the question of the possibility of correlating this archaeological material with written sources is premature.

472–503

Authors: Nedashkovsky L.F., Morzherin K.Yu.

Research objectives: To study the collection of bone wares from the Uvek site situated on the southern outskirts of Saratov. Research materials: Artefacts from the collections of the State Hermitage (14), State Historical Museum (4), National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan (13), Saratov Regional Museum of Local Lore (12), Engels Museum of Local Lore (1), and Archaeological club-museum at the Saratov regional station of young tourists (5). Results and novelty of the research: Almost all bone objects from the Uvek site have not previously been published. The novelty of the study lies in obtaining new information based on the analysis of the collection. Wares were divided on the basis of functional purpose into a number of categories: tools and household articles (needle cases, cylinders with three holes for weaving loom, spoons, seals, components of knives and other tools – handles, backplates, couplings, holders), arms and hunting equipment (arrowheads, quiver loops, ornamented facings of quivers, handles of whips), objects of toilette and ornaments (buttons, beads, brackets, belt holders, stripes), objects for games (checkers, dice), wares characterizing technological processes of production from horn and bone (plates with openings). Morphological features of wares are considered on the basis of typology, taking into consideration a wide comparative background of materials of medieval monuments of Eurasia. Distribution of finds on the basis of groupings is remarkable: tools and household articles – 65.3%, objects of arms and hunting equipment – 16.3%, objects of toilette and ornaments – 10.2%, objects for games – 6.1%, wares characterizing technological processes of production from horn and bone – 2.1%. On the Uvek site, the prevalence of tools and household articles (nearly two thirds of all finds in the complex), which are mainly presented by components of knives and other tools, is evident. A find of plate with the openings made by extraction of round work pieces convincingly demonstrates the existence of a bone carving craft in Ukek.

515–532

Authors: Malikov A.

Research objective: To identify the main variations in the use of the term “92 Uzbek tribes” in various contexts in the official discourses and the oral traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Research materials: The sources mainly used in this study are historical works of Central Asian Persian-language authors from the fifteenth to nineteenth centuries: Muhammad Salikh, Fadhlallah ibn Ruzbikhan Isfahani, Mirza Muhammad Haydar, Hafiz Tanysh Bukhari, Muhammad Yusuf munshi, Abdalazim Sami, Mirzo Salimbek, Sadr-i Ziya, and archival materials of the ethnographer B. Karmysheva. As well, an unpublished version of the epic poem “Alpamish” and archival documents from the Central State Archive of the Republic of Uzbekistan were used. The publications of Russian, Soviet, and post-Soviet specialists on the history of the 92 tribes – N. Khanykov, C. Valikhanov, A. Khoroshkhin, L. Sobolev, G. Potanin, V.V. Bartold, Akhmed Zeki Velidi Togan, P. Ivanov, B. Akhmedov, T. Sultanov, Peter Golden, Devin DeWeese, V. Trepavlov, W. Holzwarth, A. Alekseev, and B. Babadzanov – are also analyzed in detail. The results and the novelty of the research: The term “92 Uzbek tribes”, which appeared in the fifteenth-century Dasht-i Qipchaq, began to be used with a variety of meanings in the following centuries depending on the political and cultural context. The significant role of the members of the tribes from the former Golden Horde in the political life of the Central Asian Khanates from the sixteenth century, through the migration of nomadic tribes from Dasht-i Qipchaq to Mawarannahr during the sixteenth century, and still with the foundation in the Central Asian Khanates of dynasties from the surroundings of these tribes in the eighteenth century, ensured the relevance and the relatively widespread use of the term “92 Uzbek tribes”. For the semi-nomadic tribes of these khanates, belonging to the “92 tribes” meant in certain cases a privileged position and a higher socio-economic status. In certain cases, the expression “92 Uzbek tribes” was used with a political meaning to legitimize the ruling Uzbek dynasties of the Manghits and Mings. Moreover, following a long tradition possibly in relation to pursued political goals, it emphasized long-standing ties between Qazaqs, Noghays, Uzbeks, and Qaraqalpaqs. Along with the number 92, such numbers as the “32” and “96” tribes coexisted. However, distinct meanings were attached to them.

552–562

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M.

The purpose of this review is to evaluate the academic qualities of a book by A.A. Porsin about information from “Zubdat al-fikra” on the history of the ulus of Jochi in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The book is divided into two parts. In the first part, the author tries to establish the degree of reliability of information from “Zubdat al-fikra”. A.A. Porsin suggested numerous hypotheses in his book. In his opinion, the Bayat (a Kypchak tribe) played an important role in the Golden Horde from the time of Berke’s rule to the beginning of Tokhta’s rule. Representatives of the Bayat tribe contributed to the election of Uzbek Khan. According to the author, Chimpai, the son of Jochi, bore the informal title of “aqa” as the eldest in the family. After his death in 1291, Noghai became the new “aqa”. In 1293, Tokhta executed not only representatives of the Bayat tribe, but also Yaku, the heir of Chimpai. In the second part, the author offers his own version of the origin of the information source for “Zubdat al-fikra”. According to A.A. Porsin, the informant took part in political events in the Golden Horde in 1285–1313. He belonged to a political party whose head was Taz, the son of Munjuk. After 1313, he moved to Egypt and there became an informant for a now lost manuscript. This missing manuscript became the source for “Zubdat al-fikra” and for several other Arabic texts. The informer of “Zubdat al-fikra” had his own “non-Mongol” view of the history of the Golden Horde. From this viewpoint, the descendants of Chinggis Khan were equal in status to the tribal aristocracy. The work of A.A. Porsin made a great contribution to the study of the ethnopolitical history of the ulus of Jochi.

578–612

Authors: Belyakov A.V.

Research objectives: To summarize all currently known information about the Sheydyakov mirzas / princes in Russia. Research materials: Archival materials from the funds of the Posolsky, Razryadny, Pomestny offices, the Chancellery of the Moscow Razryadny and Senate archives; information on genealogies and supplementary monastic books as well as Russian necropolises. Results and novelty of the research: The author confirmed the previous assumption about the existence of two Sheydyak princely families in Russia. One of them descended from Biy Said-Ahmed bin Musa. The other descended from Mirza Said-Ahmed bin Muhammad bin Ismail bin Musa. It is proven that the representatives of the first family enjoyed special honor in Russia for a long time. This is indicated, inter alia, by the choice of marriage partners for the Sheydyakov mirzas / princes. The author refutes the established opinion about the extinction of both families at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It was discovered that the descendants of Said-Ahmed bin Musa lived in Russia until the end of the nineteenth century. The creation of a single pedigree scheme for all representatives of these families turned out to be impossible. Nevertheless, the author managed to create four genealogical tables that systematize and significantly clarify the available information.

624–626

Authors: Baybulatova L.F.

An online international round table on trends in the development of historical journals was held in Kazan. The event was timed to occur on both the 95th anniversary of the “Echo of Centuries” journal’s first issue and the 25th anniversary of the journal’s resumption. Its development and the challenges faced by publishers both 95 years ago and today were presented along with the journal’s achievements. Editors and members of the editorial boards of the journals of Kazan, Moscow, Minsk, and Nur-Sultan considered the issues and problems of the development of modern historical periodicals in the Russian Federation, Belarus, and Kazakhstan.

243–257

Authors: Szabó J.B.

The victory of Batu’s army in 1241 has been regarded by both Hungarian and foreign historians as a textbook example of flawed preparation and a badly-fought battle. This is where we run into a question that historians constantly return to: whether the Hungarian defeat was due to the decline of the light cavalry and the one-sided western-style tactics, or possibly the weakness of the heavy cavalry. We know well enough from existing research, however, that the causes of the Hungarian defeat are not to be sought in the Hungarians’ tactical inflexibility. Indeed, a new interpretation of sources containing accounts of the battle reveals signs of attempts to adapt combat tactics to the circumstances. The execution of the tactics on each side, however, were decisively influenced by differences in military technology, morale and quality of leadership. The Mongol commanders were able to order their disciplined troops to carry on the struggle even after incurring serious losses from Hungarian charges, and in the later phase of the battle, they had rested units at their disposal, while the Hungarian knights started to ignore the commands and withdraw from the battle as their combat position deteriorated, and the deployable troops of the Hungarian army gradually dwindled. It was therefore primarily the Mongols’ discipline, experience and smoothly-running command system that put them ahead of the Hungarians, whose commanders lacked coordination and were not able to keep a firm grip on their troops. Consequently, when the position became critical, the potential for coherent action faded.

274–283

Authors: Khromov K.K.

Research objectives: The presentation of an inferred location of the Tatar Shlyakh trade road from Azaq to Lviv along the northern coast of the Sea of Azov and Black Sea. The external and internal factors and political processes in the ulus of Jochi and their influence on the direction and period of operation of the road and its development. The period of operation of this road is defined according to numismatic data. Research materials: “Pratica della mercatura” by Francesco Pegolotti, “Kodeks dyplomatyczny miasta Krakowa 1257–1506”, “Diplomatarium veneto-levantinum sive Acta et diplomata res venetas ...”, medieval maps, a physical map and map of the rivers of Ukraine, a topographical study of coin finds on the territory of modern Nikolaev and Kherson regions of Ukraine. Results and novelty of the research: The exact route of the Tatar Shlyakh trade road from Azaq to Lviv along the northern coast of the Azov and the Black Seas is currently not exactly known. Modern researchers make a lot of mistakes, while trying to reconstruct it. They do not take into account the geographical features of the territory, political processes, and economic processes in the western part of the ulus of Jochi. Likewise, military clashes in the Crimea and in the western part of the ulus of Jochi at the beginning of the fourteenth century have been ignored. Some modern researchers believe that the route began in the city of Caffa on the Black Sea. Nevertheless, we took this data into account and recognized the part of the route from Caffa through Solkhat and Perekop as a branch of the main route. The topography of the finds of Jochid coins on the alleged stretch of the road was examined and used in this study. This topography indicates the possible location of another crossing over the Dnieper in the area of Adzhigolskaya Balka on the right bank of the Dnieper estuary. Two periods of the existence of this road in 1280–1300 and 1350–1390 are established according to numismatic data.

293–315

Authors: Vinogradov A.V.

Research objectives: This article investigates the alignment of forces in political elite of the Crimean Khanate in 1613–1616. Research materials: A wide range of published and archived sources – books and ambassadorial documents of the Russian state. Results and novelty of the research: The author discusses the little-studied period of diplomatic relations between the Russian state and the Crimean Khanate in 1613–1616, after the accession of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov: the stay of the embassy of A. Lodyzhensky and P. Danilov in Crimea from autumn 1613 to July 1614, the preparations and implementation of an embassy congress and exchange near Livny in August 1614, the stay of the embassy of Prince G.K. Volkonsky and P. Ovdokimov in the Crimea from August 1614 to June 1615, the preparation and implementation of the embassy exchange near Valuyki in July 1615, and the stay of the embassy of I. Speshnev and B. Nesterov in Crimea from July 1615 to May 1616. The author shows the central role of the political elite of the Crimean Khanate, meaning the most influential people in the government of Janibek Giray Khan, in establishing peaceful relations between the Russian state and the Crimean Khanate in the framework of their parallel military-political confrontation with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The article also discusses the role of individual clans of the Crimean nobility in the implementation of diplomatic relations between the two states.

345–365

Authors: Shalak M.E.

Research objectives: To conduct a comprehensive historical and geographical analysis of the work of Abdullah Ibn Rizvan. Research materials: The author used the chronicle of Abdullah Ibn Rizvan as well as specialized scholarly works on the sources and history of the Crimean Khanate. Results and novelty of the research: The “Tevarikh-i Desht-i Kipchak” (Chronicles of Desht-i Kipchak) by Abdullah Ibn Rizvan is still a poorly studied historical source as it has not been translated into Russian. The work has been preserved in two manuscripts: the French National Library in Paris and the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. In 1966, Adam Zajączkowski published the “Tevarikh-i Desht-i Kipchak” in Warsaw based on the Istanbul manuscript in comparison with the Paris manuscript. A Polish orientalist added a 1737 French translation of the annals by Pierre Delaunay entitled “Abrégé de l’histoire des quatorze premiers khans”. We used this French translation from the Warsaw edition of Adam Zajączkowski. Researchers practically neglected studying the abundant information of the chronicle on the political history of the Crimean Khanate in the first third of the seventeenth century, as well as on the historical geography of the Crimean Khanate and the entire area of the Kipchak steppe. Since his father was the governor of Kefe, Abdullah knew this area well, receiving the relevant firsthand information. Based on a comprehensive historical and geographical analysis of the chronicle, we can state that despite errors in the history of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate the author was well acquainted with the events that took place in Crimea in 1610, as well as with the geography of the surroundings of Kefe, if not the whole Crimean peninsula. Abdullah mentioned such geographical places as Sarygol and Pasha Tepe. He described in detail two battles between Rizvan Pasha and Muhammad Giray, being a likely eyewitness to the events or basing his account on the oral information of participants including his father.

378–385

Authors: Sayfetdinova E.G.

Research objectives: To introduce into the scholarly circulation a previously unknown source on the history of Tatars. Research materials: The religious and didactic treatise of Ibn Abi al-Hadid (d. 656/1258) “Sharh nahj al-balaga” (“Interpretation of the ‘Ways of Eloquence’”). Results and novelty of the research: This article presents information from the religious and didactic treatise of Ibn Abi al-Hadid (d. 656/1258) “Sharh nahj al-balaga” (“Interpretation of the ‘Ways of Eloquence’”). V.G. Tiesengauzen did not include this treatise in his “Collection of Materials Relating to the History of the Golden Horde (extracts from Arabic works)”. The eighth part of the fourth volume contains information about Chinggis Khan, the fall of Bukhara and Samarkand, the events in Khwarazm, the Mongol invasion of Iran and Azerbaijan, the defeat of the Khwarazmshah’s army, the fall of Hamadan, the invasion of Georgia and Derbent, the invasion of the Eastern European steppes, the fall of Isfahan, Mongolian raids on Syria, the attack on Baghdad. Ibn Abi al-Hadid borrowed most of the information from Ibn al-Athir, in particular about the period from 1220 to 1230. However, the treatise of Ibn Abi al-Hadid contains original information regarding some episodes of the Mongol expansion during the first half of the thirteenth century. The result of the study was the translation of some information about the Tatars into Russian, which was not recorded in other medieval Arabic sources. The scholarly novelty is that this Russian translation, helping researchers in a deeper and more detailed study of the history of Tatars, has been carried out for the first time ever.

391–410

Authors: Timokhin D.M., Tishin V.V.

Research objectives: A.A. Porsin’s monograph “The History of the Golden Horde at the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century in the ‘Zubdat al-Fikra’ by Rukn al-Din Beibars al-Mansuri” not only concerns the problems of the Golden Horde’s history, but also a set of important issues of the history of Dašt-i Qipčaq and Khwarazm during the pre-Mongol period. This review focuses specifically on these aspects of the book, primarily on the historical reconstruction undertaken by A.A. Porsin regarding both several Turkic tribal groups in the service in Khwarazm and the intertribal conflict that, from his point of view, took place in Khwarazm before and during the Mongol invasion. The authors of the review cannot agree with the Porsin’s conclusions regarding several issues and consider this section vulnerable to criticism, primarily in terms of research methodology. Research materials: The authors of this review sought to use the maximum number of available written source which allowed for a critical analysis of the reconstruction created by A.A. Porsin. Firstly, these are the works of Arabic and Persian authors used by the author of the monograph himself (al-Nasavi, Juwayni, Juzjani, Rashid al-Din), as well as a number of monuments of later Arab-Persian historiography. In addition, they used the linguistic data of the Turkic and Mongolian languages. Research results and novelty: Based on several of the most striking examples, the authors of the review criticized Porsin’s argument for the monograph: Porsin pays insufficient attention to the analysis of sources and the logic of his argument, like the whole concept, consists of a chain of hypotheses and conjectures arising from each other. The authors of the review managed to prove, in their opinion, the artificiality and, in general, the far-fetched nature of the whole picture of tribal relations within the Khwarazmian state on the eve of the Mongol invasion which Porsin reconstructed. A detailed analysis of Porsin’s argument regarding the origin of Terken Khatun and a number of historical personalities associated with the history of Khwarazm shows the weakness or even fallacy of his hypotheses. In general, we cannot recognize this section of the monograph as having been successful.

32–50

Authors: Halperin Ch.J.

Research objectives: The goal of this article is to examine recent English language publications about Rus’ relations with the Tatars of the Jochid ulus in order to correct factual errors and analyze dubious conclusions. Research materials: The primary materials utilized in this study are three books. The first is Timothy May’s new monograph synthesizing the history of the Mongol Empire. The second two are collective works by an international group of recognized specialists. The Golden Horde in World History. A Multi-Authored Monograph is a translation of an anthology originally published in Russian. The Cambridge History of Inner Asia. Volume 2: The Chinggisid Age continues a multi-volume series. Results and novelty of the research: Recent English-language studies of Rus’–Tatar relations sometimes idealize Rus’–Tatar cooperation. The Rus’–Tatar relationship rested upon destructive conquest and often destructive rule. Much Russian-language scholarship on Rus’–Tatar relations exaggerated the importance of Rus’ in the Jochid ulus. In fact the Kipchaks played a far more important role than the Rus’. Some conclusions in recent English-language studies rely upon propagandistic Russian sources, often of later provenance. English-language authors do not always agree with each other, for example, on the level of medieval Rus’ culture or the extent of Russian efforts to convert conquered Tatars. Discussions of Noghay’s status and offices are very confused. Only a Chinggisid could have issued coinage, so Noghay must have been a Chinggisid. If he was a Chinggisid, he could not have been an emir or ulus beg, offices held by “black bone” commoners.

67–86

Authors: Mayorov A.A.

Research objectives: Identification of the set of reasons that led to the emergence, function, and disappearance of the Golden Horde’s administrative structures not related to the ruling princely dynasty in the northeastern territories of the Chernigov principality in the second half of the thirteenth and first half of the fourteenth century. Research materials: Medieval Rus’ian chronicles; namely, the Laurentian, Hypathian, Resurrection, Nikonian, and Rogozhskii Chronicles. Contractual charters of Rus’ian princes, yarliqs of the Golden Horde khans, the results of archaeological research, and memoirs of European travelers. Results and novelty of the research: An analysis of the collected and systematized materials shows that initially the Golden Horde administrative structures that were not connected with the ruling princely dynasty (“Taydula’s basqaqship”) arose because of the need to preserve the administration in the lands directly adjacent to the Don trade route. To a certain extent, the continuation of their further functioning was due to the local organization of a number of commodity handicraft industries which were necessary for conducting commercial activities using the Don trade route. The consequence of the disappearance of the “basqaqship” was, among other things, an almost complete depopulation of the region. Along with the Time of Troubles in the Golden Horde in the second half of the fourteenth century, the disappearance of the “basqaqship” could have been caused both by indirect consequences of the plague epidemic (Black Death), which had a negative impact on business contacts, and the military aggression of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

107–126

Authors: Liseitsev D.V.

Research objective: To identify and introduce the notion of new sources for Enaleev uprising of 1615–16 and to reconstruct the biography of the descendants of Enalei Emmametev. Research material: This research is based on unpublished petitions of direct witnesses of the uprising, dating from the beginning of the seventeenth century. The fate of the descendants of Enalei Emmametev is reconstructed according to the materials of the estimated annual lists of Veliky Novgorod. Results and novelty of the research: The history of the lands and population of the Kazan Tsardom in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is poorly studied in Russian scholarship. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the archive of the office of the Kazan Palace in Moscow had burned down. As a result of this, historians could only hope for the discovery of documents preserved in the archives of other state institutions. Enalei’s uprising in 1615–16 is one of the little-studied episodes of the history of Kazan land at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The author of this article managed to find petitions of Kazan noblemen who suffered at the hands of the rebels or participated in the suppression of the uprising. According to these documents, the rebels besieged Kazan for some time. Information about the actions of the followers of Enalei Emmametev allows us to see the events of 1615–16 as a national liberation movement rather than an anti-feudal struggle provoked on the basis of economic reasons. The uprising was not long. It lasted about three months and was suppressed by mid-February 1616. The fate of the descendants of the leader of the uprising, Enalei Emmametev, have remained unclear to date. However, new sources make it possible to trace the biographies of Enalei’s sons and grandsons until the mid-eighteenth century. The annual estimates of Veliky Novgorod contain information on the annual payments of feed salaries to the Enaleev family. Only one of the five sons of the leader of the uprising converted to Orthodoxy; the rest remained faithful to Islam. According to documents, the disgraced Tatars, exiled to the northwest of the country, successfully integrated into their new social and economic reality. At the same time, the connection with their native land was not completely cut off. Their attempt to regain their fatherly possessions in the Kazan district is proof of this. This article’s supplementary material contains the new and extremely valuable documents both on the uprising in 1615–16 and the fate of the Enaleev family.

147–166

Authors: Khrapunov N.I.

Research objective: This paper analyses the account of the Crimea supplied in a little-known source written by British adventurer, William Eton, who visited this peninsula in the period of an independent Crimean Khanate and used extremely interesting information taken from both his own experience and his Crimean friends. Research materials: This paper addresses Eton’s book, titled A Survey of the Turkish Empire, published in London in 1798, which was never used by Russian scholarship, and responses to it by early nineteenth-century British intellectuals. Research novelty and results: This paper has discovered aspects of Eton’s biography which reveal that he both received practical knowledge of various regions of the Ottoman Empire and obtained real experience in international trading to influence his reflections and opinions. It has uncovered the possible sources of the text in question, which supplied varied information on the government of the Crimean Khanate, its relations to the Ottoman Empire, social structures and statuses of different population groups, warfare and population, towns and settlements, economy and taxation, failed reforms by the last khan Shagin Girei, depopulation throughout the last years of the khanate, and its joining to Russia. Eton’s aim behind the detailing of Crimea into international trade was an intention to normalize the relations between the Great Britain and Russia. This research has placed Eton’s ideas into the context of British policy, English-Russian connections, and the British writers’ perceptions of the place held by the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate in world history. It has been demonstrated that, similarly to Eton, many British recognised the historical conditionality of Russia’s expansion into the northern Black Sea area. This research has shown the similarity of Eton’s views with the perception of the French writers who were traditional rivals of the British.

185–199

Authors: Gallyamova A.G., Kabirova A.Sh., Khanipova I.I.

Research objectives: To analyze the reasons for the promulgation of the Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of August 9, 1944, “On the Status and Measures of Improving Mass-Political and Ideological Work of the Tatar Party Organization”, and determine its impact on the activities of the Tatar creative and humanitarian intelligentsia in the second half of the 1940s and early 1950s. Research materials: Documentary sources from federal and regional archives, along with specialized studies. Results and novelty of the research: The authors believe that the adoption of the 1944 Decree should be considered in the context of changes in the general political situation in the country associated with the strengthening of the dictatorship of the state and the destruction of liberal ideological trends at the end of World War II. The promotion of the national spirit, necessary for the survival of the state in military conditions, lost its relevance and gave way to great-power sentiments. The Decree was used as a “whip” against the national intelligentsia, but it did not stop the development of humanitarian thought. Many creative figures recognized the ideological framework only externally, while in reality, they often went far beyond it and continued to work actively in the study of ethnic history and culture.

206–210

Authors: Galimov T.

The year 2019 was marked by the 750th anniversary of the Golden Horde in the scholarly and research environment of medievalists. A number of academic events were organized in honor of this historic event: a series of academic conferences, round tables, scholarly and educational lectures, art exhibitions, publications of monographs, publications of translations, facsimiles and transliterations of an extensive range of historical sources on the history of the Golden Horde. The bulk of this output was, for the first time, introduced into scholarly circulation. Among these events, it is worth noting the Sixth International Golden Horde Forum with the participation of international experts on the history of the Golden Horde was held on 26–28 June 2019. Two other significant events held at the end of 2019 were also dedicated to the history of the Golden Horde: the roundtable “Civilization of the Golden Horde and Its Influence on the Fate of the Peoples of Eurasia,” held as part of the First International St. Petersburg Historical Forum (1 November 2019, St. Petersburg, Russia), and the International Academic Symposium “Golden Horde and Its Heritage” (25–26 November 2019, Istanbul, Turkey). It is worth noting that both final events were held in the aforementioned cities for the first time this century. The scholarly and research communities of these two large academic centers of the world welcomed these events with great enthusiasm, actively supported them with their own participation, and viewed the results with considerable interest. Thanks to this, the organizers of these events managed to conduct them in as balanced a manner as possible and, at the same time, presented new developments and ideas, including currently relevant and advanced research results on the history of the Golden Horde.

636–651

Authors: Ivanov V.A.

Objective: To show that among the many nomadic burials of the ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde) of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there are also burials of the Mongols proper, to give their morphological characteristics, and outline the distribution area of burials. Materials: The results of a comparative-typological analysis of burials under stone barrows both in the territory of the ulus of Jochi and in the east of the Eurasian steppe: Mongolia, Transbaikalia, Altai, and Tien Shan. Results and novelty of the research: The fact that the Mongols conquered the steppes of Eastern Europe implies the presence of the Mongols in the conquered territories, and this should be reflected in archaeological materials. However, for a long time, due to the peculiarities of the development of the archaeology of the medieval nomads of Eurasia, archaeological materials from the east of the Great Steppe were at the disposal of researchers in extremely small amounts. Therefore, all attempts to determine ethnicity regarding the nomadic monuments of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Eastern Europe were based on their comparison with the numerous Kipchak monuments in this territory. In turn, the Mongolian influence on the culture of the Golden Horde nomads was considered through the prism of the appearance of a complex of objects that had not been previously encountered with the Kipchak culture and therefore were perceived to be Mongolian ones, a priori: items of horse equipment, weapons, women’s jewelry and costume details. For its part, the absence of characteristic Mongolian burials was explained by the assimilation of the Mongols by local tribes, based on a corresponding statement by al-Umari. To date, the volume of archaeological materials from the east of Eurasian Steppe has substantially increased, allowing one to carry out a comparative-typological analysis of nomadic burials in the territories of the ulus of Jochi and Mongolia. In turn, this analysis made it possible to distinguish the Mongol burials among the nomadic monuments of the Golden Horde, provide their morphological characteristics, and determine the geography of their distribution in the steppes of Eastern Europe.

663–673

Authors: Akchurina-Muftieva N.M.

Research objective: To reveal Islamic traditions for creating water sources and fountains in the Crimea, their stone-cutting ornamentation, and to discuss their typology according to their purpose and volume-compositional solutions. Research materials: The art of the construction of Crimean fountains and their semantic aspects were analyzed in the publications of M. Ginzburg and A.N. Malinovskaya. Ornamentation and semantics of stone plastics of Muslim structures (fountains and gravestones) were studied by S.M. Chervonnaya and E.A. Aybabina. The issues of organization, typology, ornamentation and semantics of water sources of the 15th–19th centuries have not been practically analyzed so far. On the basis of a small number of extant buildings, as well as archival materials and descriptions of travelers, the author of the article offers an insight into the variety of forms and ornamentation of waterworks of the indicated period. The novelty and the results of the research: The study of traditional forms of Crimean Tatar artistic creativity contributes to our wider knowledge of the culture of the Crimea, developed at the peninsula since ancient times. Forced relocation, long-term actual prohibitions of the existence and development of the Crimean Tatar art, loss and destruction of its material remains and documents, and the influence of the cultures in the areas of deportation led to the loss of the ethnic memory of the people, as well as reliable and complete information about their traditional art, its symbolism and ornamentation. The identification of the specific characteristics of the artistic language and style, and the recovery of forgotten technologies, encourages a deeper and complete understanding of the genuine folk art and the revival of folk traditions in contemporary art.

687–719

Authors: Gibadullin I.R.

Research objectives: To introduce into scholarly circulation the Russian translation of a little-known Persian source on the history of the Volga-Ural region in the 14th–18th centuries and the Bashkir uprising of 1735–1740. Research materials: Currently, there is a small array of Tatar arabographic sources containing information on the history of Turkic-Tatar statehood in the Volga-Ural region, the number of which materials can be literally counted on the fingers. The work of the anonymous author, entitled “Hikayat”, and included in the composite manuscript which is stored in the Library of the Institute of Oriental manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, is almost the only known Persian work on the history of the Volga-Ural region. Therefore, it is an important source on the history of this region, especially if we consider that it was written by a local author and reflects the features of the regional Volga-Ural historical narrative tradition. This publication contains an introductory article, the main part of which is a textological analysis of this work. This source is translated into Russian and introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time ever. Results and novelty of the research: The “Hikayat” can be divided into two parts that differ according to the sources used by the author and partly according to the nature of the narrative: 1) the presentation of events of the distant past, starting from the supposed arrival of Timur in Bolghar, the history of the Kazan Khanate and its conquest which concludes with a description of realities of the “Bashkir vilayet”, and an account of the willingness of local Muslims to resist Russian intervention presented as an organic continuation of the resistance of the Kazan Muslims to the expansion of the Muscovite state. Here the anonymous author relied on some oral traditions (Akhbar) and chronicles (tavarikh), employing them as written sources along with some “old Bulgarian stories” (kissakha-yi kadim-i bulgariya); 2) an account of the events which took place during the uprising of 1735–1740 on the basis of the testimony of contemporary participants and eyewitnesses, often unnamed, but sometimes mentioned by name.

733–743

Authors: Abibullayeva E.E.

Objective: To present a picture of everyday life in the Crimean khanate on the basis of the analysis of written sources describing medicine and means of treatment. Research materials: “Menafiu-n Nas”, a medical treatise of the first half of the sixteenth century studied by Turkish researchers, information found in Kadiasker notebooks, and information originating from the medieval travelers, Evliya Çelebi, Emiddio Dortelli d’Ascoli, and Charles de Peyssonnel. Results and novelty of the research: This article contains the review of one aspect of everyday life in the period of the Crimean Khanate. Great attention is paid to the observations recorded during training or practice and recorded in the written sources of the 16th–18th centuries. Examining everyday life in the towns of the Crimean Khanate, one cannot avoid the topic of medicine, since the people at all stages of their lives were looking for new ways of treating different diseases. Foremost among all mentioned materials about medical researchers is that which we find in the works of Evliya Çelebi. For example, while describing the capital of the Crimean Khanate, he wrote the following: “This is the ancient town – it is the source of scholars and a collection of wise people, the residence of poets, and that is why there are so many scholars of medicine. Skillful doctors and surgeons, they are good masters in the science of the pulse, quite like Galen”. Concerning special medical institutions for the sick, the existence of the hospital (imarhane) should be noted, about which the traveler wrote the following “…close to Sahib Giray Khan’s mosque, in Bakhchisaray, there is a hospital consisting of two rooms, where they take care of the sick people”. The special attention paid by Sahib Giray to sick people is confirmed by his protection and patronage of Nedai, the Crimean-Turkish scholar of medicine who lived on the first half of the sixteenth century and who was also the author of some works in philosophy and medicine, in particular, a well-known medical treatise, “Menafiu-n Nas”. In his work, he enumerated the substances of plant, animal, and mineral origin and gave recipes for preparing medicine aimed at treating different diseases. It is well known that this treatise enjoyed great popularity among people thanks to its quite simple descriptions and the fact that it was written in the Turkish language.

760–783

Authors: Konev A.Yu.

Objective: To discuss debated issues relating to the special characteristics of patriality of non-Russian peoples who had been in the sphere of influence of the former Kazan and Siberian Khanates and were included into the system of the Tsardom of Moscovy in the sixteenth century; the classification of this population and the terminology used for its description; the special features of the status of the indigenous peoples classified as “yasak people”; and the role of gift exchange in the process of their integration into the Russian state structure. Research materials: The article is based on the analysis of previous works on the topic under consideration and on the analysis of published historical sources or sources found in the collections of Russian archives. Results and novelty of the research: The foreign status of the people and communities treated as the others within the Russian political space, and their transitional status on the way towards their full allegiance, were described with different socionyms and politonyms in the period under consideration. “Foreigners” was employed as the main term. It is considered as an indicator of changes in the status of various groups of the non-Russian population. The use of words such as “foreigner”, etc. faded away in the official paper work regarding the Volga region and Cis-Urals autochthonous population during the seventeenth century, even while it became widely used if talking about those peoples who settled in the territories from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. This can be explained by the following factors: the pace and degree of integration of new lands into the Russian state system; the remote character of the new lands; the continuing resistance of Kuchum’s descendants who drew former Turk and Ugric subjects of the Siberian Khan into their orbit; the periodic “shakiness and betrayals” on the part of Siberian yasak payers; their commitment to pagan cults and Islam and the extremely small number of newly baptized people. Reciprocal interactions played a significant part in the process of subjection of the indigenous peoples of the Urals and Siberia. The regional version of the governance model in the form of mutual exchange between the authorities and the subjects was reflected in the formula used in the “word of grand” (zhalovannoe slovo) included in the instructions to the Siberian voivodes of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Gifts and rewards to the indigenous population in response to the proffering of gift-furs (pominochnaya ruhlyad’) were an effective means of providing the collection of yasak. In contrast to the Volga region, the yasak in the territories under consideration did not convert into a land tax and retained features of a tribute for the right to reside on the land until the beginning of the eighteenth century. Thus, special features of the position of different groups who paid yasak were kept. The conditions for establishing a legal connection with the state on the basis of belonging to a certain social stratum were still being formed. As such, this situation does not permit us to consider a heterogeneous mass of “yasak people” in Russia in the seventeenth century as a social estate.

798–806

Authors: Zhilina N.V.

This article analyzes a new book by a group of authors dedicated to jewelry of the Turkic peoples of Eurasia. The study of extensive jewelry materials of the Turkic peoples of the 18th–20th centuries is important for specialists emerging from different profiles (ethnographers, archeologists, art historians, historians) as well as for interdisciplinary research related to the study of the culture of different nations. This study, and the new ones it stimulates, will help to clarify the historical paths of development and of cultural interaction between nations. The main content of the book is based on the principle of consistent characterization of jewelry and art of various Turkic peoples: six chapters. The book characterizes the forms of jewelry, their semantics, technology, and use in national costumes. Unfortunately, the task of studying the ornamentation of jewelry has not been set. One chapter raises the general problem of the symbolic meaning of metals in the mythology of the Turks and Mongols. The book can become a real corpus of sources only after the publication of a catalog of the materials studied in a desired second volume. The use of the typological method in the book is not always consistent and clear. While the book is colorfully illustrated, there is a lack of typological tables among the illustrations. The authors are often inclined to link earlier materials to the ones they discuss in the book. Despite some analogies, for objective comparison there is a lack of complete knowledge of the entire body of materials: typological, technological and stylistic. Each of the authors touched the stated aspects of jewelry problems with different degrees of breadth and depth. Such a situation is partly justified by the fact that the genre of this book is defined as “historical and ethnographic essays”. One of the best chapters of the book, in our opinion, is the chapter of A.I. Savvinov about jewelry of the Yakuts, fully relevant to the objective of the book. Among the strong works, there is the chapter by L.N. Donina and S.V. Suslova about the Kazan-Tatar jewelry art with a detailed analysis of the technology. A common feature of the collective monograph is the lack of output sections of chapters. Despite the noted shortcomings, the published book can be welcomed as an accomplished exercise in performing a complex task – setting out the characteristics of the jewelry of various Turkic peoples. My focusing on some questions, I hope, will serve in fruitful discussions. In addition to the idea already realized, it is possible to hope for the release of the second volume of the book with a catalog of the main materials, as well as with some analytical and concluding chapters or sections.

434–460

Authors: Parunin A.V.

Research objectives: To comprehensively explore the political history of the Golden Horde during the specified period; to identify the causes of the internecine wars of this period and simultaneously identify the main political groups, as well as their role and influence on the course of events. Research materials: Russian annals (Nikonovskaya, Simeonovskaya, Gustynskaya, and the West Russian chronicles); Persian historiography (al-Hawafi, Hafiz Abru, Samarkandi, Ötemish Haji); Arabic historiography (al-Ayni); Tatar historiography (Kirimy, Kadir Ali-bek, Khurremi); the Nogai heroic epos “Idegei”; accounting books (massariae) of Caffa; the memoirs of the Bavarian soldier Johann Schiltberger; the diplomatic correspondence of Vytautas; Polish historical works (Jan Długosz), etc. The author also used the works by A.L. Ponomarev, R.Yu. Reva, D.N. Maslyuzhenko, R.A. Bespalov, A.P. Grigoriev, V.M. Zhirmunsky et al. Results and novelty of the research: The author has reached the conclusion that during the civil strife in the Golden Horde in the 1420s, the main struggle took place between the descendants of Töqa-Temur, Ulugh-Muhammad, supported by the great Lithuanian prince Vytautas, and the grandson of Urus Khan, Baraq, supported by Timurid Ulugh Bek. Based on the publication of new sources (in particular, the “Qara tavarikh” of Ötemish Haji), the article proposes a solution for the problem of the so-called “Muhammads” – the problem, which was first formulated by M.G. Safargaliev and recently again discussed by R.Yu. Reva, Ya.V. Pilipchuk, Zh.M. Sabitov. A comprehensive analysis of written sources (classified on chronological and factual grounds) suggests that “Muhammad”, often mentioned in medieval literature, was in fact Ulugh Muhammad, and not just another eponymous prince from the Shibanid dynasty. The author also examined in detail the process of nominating new candidates for the throne after the death of Dervish Khan, Kadir Berdy and Idegei. The Crimean beks were most active here, having approved their protege Ulugh Muhammad. What happened clearly demonstrates the fact that for some time, the Nogais lost their political dominance in the Golden Horde despite the accounts of the late Tatar chroniclers who clearly fell under the influence of the Nogai heroic epic. It is also interesting that the outline of the events of this period is directly related to the scholarly research, as well as to the source-research tools used by it. In general, the political history of the Golden Horde in the period under consideration reflects the continuation of the political decay of the state, the increasing role of local clans, as well as the increased attention paid to it by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

485–496

Authors: Maslyuzhenko D.N.

Objectives and research materials: In 1885, Shihabuddin Marjani wrote the work “Mustafa al-Akhbar fi ahwal Kazan va Bulgar” (“The Mine of Information about Events in Kazan and Bulghar”). By analyzing chapters of the history on the Siberian branch of the Shibanid dynasty, the author of the present article aims to identify the main sources for the hypotheses proposed by S. Marjani. In the part of the work published in Russian, there are several stories related to representatives of the branch of the Shibanid dynasty who were enthroned in Tyumen and Siberia. Stories about them are scattered in various sections: “Section about the Toqtamishids”, “Section about the New State with the Capital in Kazan”, “Section about the Kasimov Khanate in the Lands of Kirman”, “Section about the Siberian Khans”. In addition, some information is available in the “Section about the Sheibanid Khans” and “Section about the Sheibanids Who Ruled in Mawarannahr”. Results and novelty of the research: A comparison of Marjani’s accounts with the sources published in Russian at that time allows us to suggest that Marjani could have made use of “The Genealogical Tree of the Turks” by Abu-l-Ghazi, the “Sheibaniade” by an unknown author and published in Kazan in 1849 by I. Berezin, the “Collection of Materials Relating to the History of the Golden Horde” by V. Tizengauzen (Volume I. Extracts from Arabic sources), and “Studies of the Kasimov Tsars and Princes” by V.V. Velyaminov-Zernov. With a certain degree of probability, he also could have used the work, “Mukim-Khan’s history” by Muhammad Yusuf Munshi. In such a case, Marjani was apparently the first historian in the Russian milieu who used Munshi’s text and briefly reviewed the history of the formation and collapse of the Uzbek khanate of Abu al-Khair. Although suffering from certain factual flaws, the work of Marjani contained important information on the history of the Shibanids. Moreover, in some cases, the author’s assumptions were ahead of the historical scholarship of his time; for example, regarding the khan’s titles of Ali and Ishim. This observation indicates the need for further research into the sources used by this author.

509–523

Authors: Abduzhemilev R.R.

Research objectives: To identify the genealogical line of the ruling dynasty of the Crimean Khanate – the Girays – tracing the family tree from Chinggis Khan to Haji Giray. The ancestors of Girays were the khans of the Golden Horde. The first Crimean khan, Haji Giray, is considered to be the direct descendant of Jochi’s son – Töqa-Temur. The main method for research is comparative analysis. Research materials: The author analyzes the following sources: “Jami al-Tavarikh” (“Compendium of Chronicles”) by Rashid al-Din, “Mu’izz al-ansab” (“The Book in Praise of Genealogies”), “Tavarikh-i guzida-yi nusrat-name” (“Selected Stories from the Book of victories”), “Qara tavarikh” by Ötemish Haji, “Shajare-i Türk” (“The Genealogy of the Turks”) by Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadur, “Tarikh-i İslam Giray Khan” (“History of Islam Giray Khan”) by Mehmed Senai, “Jami ad-Duval” (“The Collection of the Dynasties”), “Essebu’s-seyyar” (“Seven Planets”) by Seyid Muhammed Riza, “Umdet al-akhbar” (“The Basis of News”) by Abdulgaffar Kyrymi, and the “Gulbün-i Khanan” (“Rose Bush of the Khans”) by Halim Giray Sultan. Important sources for genealogical studies are the chronicles of the Crimean Khanate called tarikhs or tavarikhs. They provide information for identifying important links in the genealogical chain. Results and novelty of the research: Based on a comprehensive comparative analysis, the author established a relatively reliable genealogical line of the predecessors of Girays. Another significant aspect of the examined genealogies is the spelling of the khans’ names. Different variations create difficulties in identifying genealogical links. In summary, the author of the article concludes that there was often demonstrable confusion in the process of compiling the genealogical line of the Crimean khans.

545–567

Authors: Pow S.

Objective: An attempt is made to explain why Mongols were so often referred to as Tatars in thirteenth-century primary sources and to offer a new interpretation of how the usage of both ethnonyms evolved over the course of the Mongol Empire’s expansion and dissolution. Research materials: Primary sources were used which originated from Russian, Mongolian, Latin, Persian, Arabic, Chinese, and Korean authors. The Russian Novgorod and Galicia-Volhynia Chronicles, Secret History of the Mongols, Rashid al-Din, the Yuan Shi, and the Mengda Beilu were the most significant in formulating an argument. Secondary literature by leading figures in the field of Mongol history was consulted. Research results and novelty: The main finding is that the different explanations found in primary source texts composed under Mongol governments for how these names were used in the pre-imperial period and for the double-naming phenomenon seem implausible when compared to the broader body of primary sources whose authors were not directed by an evolving Mongol imperial ideology. Furthermore, the various explanations cannot be combined into some workable model for how the double-naming phenomenon happened in the thirteenth century, since they contradict one another on fundamental issues such as whether Tatars still existed or were an extinct nation. As such, it is more plausible that the Mongols used the name “Tatar” to self-identify in the first three or four decades of the Mongol Empire’s expansion. The gradual replacement of “Tatar” by “Mongol” was solidified by the development of imperial historiography in the 1250s and 1260s. This proposed scenario can make sense of the strange dichotomy in the primary sources regarding ethnonyms. Novelty is found in the comparison of Chinese and European sources and the attempt to synthesize their claims – an approach which highlights potential avenues of research for experts in Islamic, Russian, and Chinese sources.

593–602

Authors: Moiseev M.V.

The development of the post-Horde’s research in recent years requires the summarizing of intermediate results and the formulation of new research problems. In his latest monograph “From Vassals to Overlords. The Russian State and the Heirs of the Golden Horde”, Roman Pochekaev offered his vision of the solutions to several key problems. The book contains essays on the history of relations between the Moscow State and various Turkic and Mongol states, and then those between the Russian Empire and the Kazakh Khanate. This review is limited to the first part of the monograph and focuses on the relations of the Muscovite State with the Turko-Mongol states in the 15th–17th centuries. This section is divided into three chapters, “The Redistribution of the Inheritance of the Golden Horde”, “The Establishment of Inter-state Relations in the New Conditions”, and “Political and Legal Realities on the Post-Horde’s Space through the Eyes of Foreign Contemporaries”. Each chapter consists of several essays on a single problem. However, not all assumptions were equally worked out. The present review focuses on the criticism of the “weak” (in the opinion of the reviewer) areas of the research. To list these “weaknesses” – first, the uneven degree of the study of the source material. Secondly, not all the proposed hypotheses have a solid documentary base. However, the book also contains successful solutions. The author’s historical and legal essays are of great interest, although it is regrettable that they are based on limited material. It is possible that an analysis of the legal practices of the post-Horde’s states would be more fruitful, especially the development of a methodology for studying legal conflicts in Kasimov and more widely among the Moscow service Tatars: which rules of law were used? Was it the Russian law, the Sharia, or customary law? It is a pity that these questions have found too little space within the book. Despite the serious intention to summarize the accumulated information, the task of creating a holistic generalizing work on the history of the post-Horde’s political space was not fulfilled, although a step forward toward that goal has been made