Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

14–28

Authors: Nikolov A.

By the end of the 13th century, when the Tatar-Mongols were already well-known in Latin Europe, several experts in the Near East affairs tried to specify the real place of the Tatars of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhan Horde in the complicated geopolitical complex, related to the struggle for the liberation of the Holy Land and the Holy Sepulchre from the “yoke of the Saracens”. The experts had to explain to the Western European elites how they should perceive the two Western uluses of the formerly united Mongol Empire of the Chinggisids. The relations with the Golden Horde and the Ilkhans of Iran appeared to be of crucial importance for the liberation and preservation of the Holy Land. Thus, two images of the Tatars took shape gradually: that of potential enemies in the case of the Golden Horde, and the possible allies in the case of the Ilkhans. This text is dedicated to several treatises of these propagandists, unified under the title and the slogan De Recuperatione Terrae Sanctae. The main focus is on the treatises of Hayton of Corycus (“Flower of the Histories of the Orient”) and of Marino Sanudo Torsello (“The Secrets of the Faithful to the Cross”), where we could find extremely interesting information on the Western European image of the Tatars. Several other excerpts are included in the text, namely passages from the treatises of William Adam (“How to exterminate the Saracens”), Pseudo-Brocardus (“A Guideline of Organization of a Crusade”) and the founder of this genre – Fidenzio di Padova (“A Book for the Recovery of the Holy Land”), where the political and military tendencies are defined very clear. The evolution of the image of the Tatar-Mongols developed from “children of the Tartar” to “bonnes sauvages” and “global rulers”, that are able to handle even the holy cause of the liberation of the Promised Land of the Christian people.

54-70

Authors: Zilivinskaya E.

The article analyzes the religious monuments of the Golden Horde. It addresses such categories of buildings as mosques, minarets, madrasahs, khanaka and mausoleums. Objects monumental architecture quite clearly reflect the different traditions in the addition of multi-component urban culture of the Golden Horde. Analysis plan of the mosques, the main structures of the Muslim city, showed that all the currently known Juma Mosque of the Golden Horde had a basilica plan. Such a plan which has been adopted in Asia Minor, namely, in Anatolia, where similar mosque became widespread in the Seljuk period. Asia Minor had the appearance and minarets. Disposition of the mausoleums is quite diverse. They were built under the influence of architectural schools of Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Khorezm and nomadic traditions. In spite of the presence of various building traditions and innovations, principles of cult institutions’ planning were uniform all over the Golden Horde, which implies the elaboration of a single, though eclectic in details, architectural style.

92-106

Authors: Trepavlov V.V..

Lithuanian Metrica contains a lot of information on the Turkic khanates of Eastern Europe of the 15th–16th centuries. It consists mainly of documents related to foreign relations of the Polish-Lithuanian State and covers its contacts primarily with the Crimean Yurt. In Lithuanian Metrica can be also found valuable information about the Great Horde and the Nogai Horde. Information reflecting contacts of Vilna and Cracow with Kazan and Astrakhan khanates is also presented in metrica although very fragmentary. The Polish-Lithuanian State inherited policy of Vilnius rulers in relation to the khans. This policy emerged in the era of the weakening and disintegration of the Golden Horde during the reign of the Grand Dukes Algirdas and, especially, Vytautas and was expressed in the form of patronage of deposed Tokhtamysh and his children. Later it continued in contacts with the Crimean Girays and (until the beginning of the 16th century) with the khans of Great Horde. In respect of the Golden Horde, the documents of Lithuanian Metrica contain separate memories of participants of diplomatic correspondence concerning order that once existed in this State. In general, such memories occur both as references to the deeds and decrees of the former Horde’s “tsars” justifying the legitimacy of the current policies, and as norms of relations adopted at the time, presented as a model to be followed by descendants. The memory of the Horde-Lithuanian relations of the 13th – the first half of the 15th centuries are reflected in the materials of Lithuanian Metrica in the form of an equally abstract references to the relationship that existed in the times of ancestors. Tatar and Polish-Lithuanian side constantly referred to the relationship of the “brotherhood”, i.e. status equality, which were established between the Grand Duke Algirdas and Vitautas and king Casimierz on the one hand, and the Horde khans on the other. The documents contained in Lithuanian Metrica seem to be a necessary element of the source base for the study of the later Golden Horde and ‘post-Horde’ khanates of the 15th–16th centuries (and of the 17th century for Crimea).

117-134

Authors: Maslyuzhenko D.N.

In 2014, I.M. Mirgaleev published a part of the work of Ötemish Hajji’s Continuator. This part is devoted to the history of the Siberian Shibanid dynasty whose activity is known only by very few written sources. So, the introduction of a new work requires a source analysis undertaken in this article. A significant part of this work is devoted to the genealogy of the Shibanids, where special attention is paid to descendants of Bek Konda oglan. All rulers of Tyumen and Siberian Yurts originated exactly from these descendants. The author often confuses the degree of relationship, and also distorts the names of some representatives of the dynasty. Despite this, the majority of these names correspond to other sources on this issue. At the same time, Continuator leads a genealogical list not only up to the children of Tyumen khan Ibrahim but also includes his grandchildren and great grandchildren. A detailed listing of the recent descendants indicates that Continuator got information from one of the representatives of the dynasty. His informants could be the descendants of khan Kuchum, who proved to be on the territory of the Moscow State in the beginning of the 17th century. Continuator’s narrative is also similar to the content of Siberian chronicles in relation to such details as the reign in Kazan of khan Ibrahim and the degree of relationship between Kuchum and Muhammad Kul. At the same time, the author does not always adequately describe the specific borders of Shibanid uluses. He attributes the power in the territory of Volga-Oka interfluve to both khan Haji Muhammad (ruled in 1420s) and his distant descendant Kuchum. In general, Continuator was not familiar with the history of Siberian possessions of this dynasty and the events of the 15th century paying special attention to the affairs of the Volga region and Central Asian. Simultaneously, the author reports such unknown historical events as the Hajji Muhammad’s capture of the city of Tura, future center of Tyumen khanate. However, for the middle of the 16th century, a series of reports by this author are of unique nature. This concerns information both on submission by khan Murtaza of Maverannahr territory and about the wars of Kuchum on the Syr Darya in the region of Otrar. This information highlights the Central Asian policy of Siberian Shibanids and points to the considerable extent of their possessions during the 15th–16th centuries. Unlike other Tatar authors, Continuator relates the collapse of the Siberian Shibanids state and seizure of its territory by the Russians not to Kuchum but to his son Ali.

151-168

Authors: Khrapunov N.I., Khrapunova S.N.

The paper analyses the account of Tataria collected by famous English adventurer John Smith. In 1602, Smith, a mercenary in Transylvania, was captivated by pillagers and, later, sold into slavery. In spring of 1603 he found himself a slave somewhere in the Azov Sea Area, in the land of the Crimean Khanate. A few months later, Smith succeeded to escape, he reached the Moscow czar’s country, and whence returned to Transylvania. Twenty years after, Smith published his life story in short (1625) and then long version (1630). A considerable part of the story was the account of the author’s adventures among the Turks and the Tatars. Smith widely used other travellers’ accounts (William Biddulph, Antony Jenkinson, William of Rubruck, and Martin Broniovius), collected by famous Samuel Purchas, the first publisher of Smith’s own story. Now we can determine original materials by Smith, based on his personal experience, which describe the Crimean Khanate’s daily life and warfare.

188-206

Authors: Zaytsev I.V.

The article considers the contents of the letter addressed by Nogai biy Urus (1576) to the Tsar Ivan IV. The letter refers to the lands that paid to the Nogais some “compensation” before they ended under the power of Moscow. According to the author of the present article, this text refers to a division of the Kazan Khanate in the number of administrative units with unequal status: the core of the Khanate – the “yurt of Bulgar tsar” (that is, apparently, actual Kazan, the khan’s domain), and two princely yurts – the Arsk principality and lands of the principality, which belonged to princes Ali-Bey and Altyn-Bey before the arrival of Ulugh-Muhammad. Most likely, these lands were situated south of Bolghar at the left bank of the Volga, on the territory of modern Ulyanovsk region and, possibly, partly at the right bank, near Tetyushi. The Arsk land enjoyed a special independent (or semi-independent) position during the Bulgar time (Arsaniya land). This division of the Kazan Khanate into three parts is reflected not only in the analyzed text, but also elsewhere, particularly, in the Russian chronicles.

216-225

Authors: Seleznev Yu.V.

This article contains a review of two monographs by A.G. Yurchenko. In both monographs Yurchenko explores religious situation in the ulus of Jochi in the 13th–15th centuries. The author of duologue analyzes the structure of everyday life in the Horde State during the 13th–14th centuries, reflecting the ratio of its religious and administrative bases. Yurchenko comes to a conclusion about the existence of a more complex structure of the Horde society in terms of the confessional and political structure of the ulus of Jochi. According to the arguments presented by Yurchenko, one can conclude that the complex social structure preserved even after the Uzbek’s adoption of Islam. At the same time, the imperial “vertical of power” based on nomadic tradition and corresponding rituals changed slowly and reluctantly. However, at the highest administrative level, among the Horde elite, belonging to the Muslim faith became mandatory, and only this affiliation allowed to occupy senior posts in the State. This status of religious doctrine within the political system can justifiably be called a State ideology or religion of the State. At the same time, aspects highlighted by Yurchenko (a model of nomadic State, where religious institutions are separated from the State, and sacral-religious, philosophical discourses of sources on the history of the Horde) deserves attention and further development. To understand the current of social processes within the ulus of Jochi during the 13th–15th centuries, to get closer to scientific knowledge of the real history of the Horde, one should critically deal with the sources and consider the Horde’s reality through the prism of ideologico-religious and philosophical doctrines of the time, especially, in the Middle Ages. This article provides additional arguments both in favor of conceptual constructions of the author and in their rebuttal as well. Author of the review finds it necessary to carefully and critically deal with information of medieval sources on the history of the Horde, taking into account conclusions proposed by Yurchenko.

227-230

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

The round table “Princely ‘Yurts’ of the Kazan Khanate” took place in Kazan on May 19, 2015. The round table was organized by the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates (Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) and the All-Russian State library for foreign literature. I.M. Mirgaleev (Cand. Sci. in History), Head of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates (Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan), acted as the moderator of the event. I.V. Zaytsev (Dr. Sci. in History), Research Associate of Institute of Oriental studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Deputy Director-General for Science of Bakhchisaray historical, cultural and archaeological museum-reserve (Moscow, Bakhchisaray), submitted his report on the subject: “Princely ‘Yurts’ of the Kazan Khanate”. The discussion of the report was attended by: R.S. Khakimov, Doctor of Historical Studies, Academician of the Academy of Science of RT, Director of the Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AN RT; D.M. Iskhakov, Doctor of Historical Studies, Leading Research Fellow of the Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AN RT; I.M. Mirgaleev, Cand. Sci. in History, Head of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates of AS RT; I.A. Mustakimov, Cand. Sci. in History, Head of the Sector of scientific use of archival documents and international relations of the Main Archive Department under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Tatarstan; employees of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates of AS RT: B.R. Rakhimzyanov, Cand. Sci. in History, Senior Research Fellow; A.V. Aksanov, Cand. Sci. in History, Senior Research Fellow; T.F. Khaydarov, Cand. Sci. in History, Senior Research Fellow; E.G. Sayfetdinova, Cand. Sci. in History, Senior Research Fellow; L.F. Baybulatova, Cand. Sci. in History, Senior Research Fellow; and also graduate students of the Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates. The text of the report is included, with some additions, in the present issue of the Golden Horde Review (see: Zaitsev I.V. Princely “Yurts” of Kazan Khanate). Generally, the roundtable participants criticized the thesis presented by I.V. Zaytsev of a three-part structure of the Kazan Khanate. According to opponents, the Khanate had a more complex structure, as evidenced by the chronicles and diplomatic documents. For example, report of the official chronicles for 1469 was presented as a counterargument, which recorded names of six eastern uluses of the Kazan Khanate. The roundtable participants did not agree with identification of “Ardabaev yurt” with the Arsk land, but they found a compelling correlation of “Alibaev and Altybaev yurts” with lands located south of Bolghar. As a result of the discussion the participants came to the conclusion that the problem of administrative-territorial organization of the Kazan Khanate requires more detailed study, involving the widest possible range of sources.

23-33

Authors: Sinor D.

Nowadays, yarlyks of the most outstanding ruler of the Golden Horde, khan Uzbek, have been preserved only in translations into Russian, Italian, and Latin. This paper analyzes in detail the first of these yarlyks preserved in translation into Latin. The author presents arguments for and against the religious tolerance of Uzbek and makes assumptions about belonging to Christianity of the persons close to the Golden Horde throne. Based on the data from selected and previously published Latin sources of that period, the author tries to comprehend the religious policy of khan Uzbek characterized by the traditional religious tolerance. The current historiographical evaluation of the religious policy of khan Uzbek is mainly based only on the text of his letter to the Mamluk Sultan Malik al-Nasir compiled at the beginning of his reign. Khan Uzbek’s yarlyk dated back to the early period of his rule, represents his religious policy in a completely different light. This as well as other Latin documents directly indicate that the khan of ulus of Jochi was guided in his religious policy by the same principles as his uncle, khan Tokhta.

43-53

Authors: Gromenko S.V.

In the history of the Crimean peninsula, the least studied is a period of the late Middle Ages. To the greatest extent it concerns issues related to the state of the Crimean nomadic and, in particular, of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde. Researchers have paid insufficient attention to the study of a period of internal wars of the late 14th – early 15th centuries. Historiographical tradition speaks of several military expeditions undertaken by Timur, Tokhtamysh, and Edigu to the Crimea: in 1395, 1396, 1397, 1399, and 1417. According to researchers, as a result of these campaigns, the majority of the Crimean cities, supposedly, was destroyed. As part of this tradition, there have been written works by A. Jacobson, M. Safargaliev, A. Gertsen, and many others. However, I. Mirgaleev, V. Myts, and a number of Crimean archaeologists criticized the findings of previous studies. Based on comparative analysis of primary sources (Arab chronicles, Golden Horde documents, diaries of travelers) and archaeological data, the author of this article argues that there was in reality only campaign in 1397 and all the other “campaigns” were the consequence of errors of the chroniclers who recorded one historical event under different dates. W. Heyd formulated a similar concept in the late 19th century, but it has not found support in the Soviet historiography. Today more than ever, it is clear that many of the established statements in the history of the Crimean Middle Ages should be reconsidered.

62-76

Authors: Uzelac A.

The aim of this paper is the analysis of relations between the Latin Empire of Constantinople and Ulus of Jochi (the Golden Horde). It is primarily focused upon the diplomatic mission of Baldwin of Hainaut, which took place approximately between 1249 and 1252. As a representative of the namesake Latin Emperor, Baldwin of Hainaut led negotiations with the Batu’s son Sartak, and then, he traveled to the Far East, where he possibly met with the Great Khan Möngke. The aim of the mission was to secure the Mongol support for the defense of Constantinople against aggressive aspirations of the Empire of Nicaea. The immediate results of the Baldwin’s mission are not known, but it is certain that they led to the establishment of the diplomatic relations between the Latin Empire and the Jochids. It is confirmed by the fact that the famous Flemish traveler William of Rubruck carried recommendations of the Latin emperor to a Tatar representative who governed the lands to the north of Crimea. Exactly these recommendations provided Rubruck safe passage through the Tatar territory. Important factor that led to the Baldwin’s enterprise were activities of Venetian and other Italian merchants. They served as primary intermediaries between the Frankish establishment of Constantinople and the Tatars, but they were not the only ones who played this role. Political and ecclesiastical elite of the Crimean cities, especially of its main port Soldaia, also had important place in these contacts. In the mid-thirteenth century, the Crimea became a contact zone between the two civilizations. In Crimea, western and the Tatar political interests intermingled, as a result of the strategic location of the peninsula, commercial activities of its inhabitants and the cosmopolitan character of the Crimean urban centers.

91-101

Authors: Kołodziejczyk D.

The author examines the different ways, by which foreign borrowings were adopted in the Office of the Crimean Khanate. On the one hand, Tatars adopted specimens from the Moscow and Polish-Lithuanian Chancelleries (e.g. pendant seal), on the other hand, they sought to maintain and even restore ancient terminology related to the Genghisid and Central Asian tradition. Baysa with inscription providing certain rights and privileges on behalf of the ruler was used in the Genghisid Empire and ulus of Jochi. The first Crimean Tatar document, where we meet the term baysa, is a Charter of Shert sent by khan Mehmed III Giray to tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov in September 1624. In 1634, Janibek Giray also wrote about the “golden baysa” apparently as a synonym of seal. Until the mid–17th century, mention of baysa occurs only in the text of the Crimean Charters of Shert sent to Moscow. From 1654, charters with a golden baysa was sent to the Polish king as well. A new form of solemn khan’s charters began to change under the influence of the development of office practice in Moscow and Warsaw. In the same period in the khan’s intitulation appears the formula “the great Padishah of Tat ve Tavgach” – new elements related to the Genghisid and ancient Turkic tradition of Central Asia. Consequently, according to the author, the latter change could be associated with the activities of Shahin Giray and his stay in Persia, or this innovation was imported from the Siberian Khanate.

113-142

Authors: Nepomnyashchiy A.A.

On the basis of a substantial body of archival documents of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the little-known publications, the author has restored laborious work of professor of St. Petersburg University Vasiliy Dmitrievich Smirnov who collected, organized and preserved in the central archival repositories sources for the history of the Crimean Khanate. The author has reconstructed the main events in his life and his activities in the Imperial Public Library related to the concentration in this store of the Crimean Tatar documents (article also contains a short list of his main works). Not limited to the literary sources of Turkey and Russia, Vasiliy Dmitrievich repeatedly worked in the libraries of Budapest, Vienna, London, and Paris. In the 1880’s, he continued to develop the theme of his doctoral thesis and combined literary studies and work in the archives with archaeological researches in the Crimea. The author has analyzed the process of creating of the largest work on the history of the Crimean Khanate, which remains hitherto an unrivaled. V.D. Smirnov managed to summarize Turkish sources (medieval Ottoman and Crimean “chronicles”, most of which have not yet been translated) and historiography. This work continues to constitute a historiographical interest in the present. He widely covered, in the first place, the political history of the Crimean Khanate. The author have reviewed the research trip of V.D. Smirnov to the Crimea, his work in local archives, and communication with experts in the Crimean Tatar and Ottoman history. The author has considered the epistolary heritage of the scholar and, on this basis, discovered his academic contacts with leading researchers of Crimea of that time. The author found that he corresponded with such researchers as A.I. Markevich, N.A. Sultan Krym Giray, Z.A. Firkovich, S.M. Shapshal. To V.D. Smirnov belong a comprehensive source study on the history of medieval Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate.

151-168

Authors: Vasilyev D.V., Ivanov V.A.

This article discusses three evaluation concepts of the place and role of the Golden Horde in the history of the peoples of Eastern Europe given in three basic researches in recent years: “History of the Tatars from the ancient times. T.III. Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde). 13th–15th centuries”, Yu.A. Zeleneev’s monograph “Sketches of ethnic and cultural history of the Volga Region in the 13th–15th centuries” and “History of the Bashkir people in seven volumes. Volume II”. By comparing them with each other, the authors come to the conclusion that if the concept both of the authors of the 3rd volume of the “History of the Tartars” and of the Yu.A. Zeleneev’s monograph are constructive and provide opportunities for academic discussion, then the concept of the authors of the 2nd volume of the “History of the Bashkir people” does not go beyond of mere “folk history”.

202-213

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M.

Research monograph of Zardykhan Qinayatuly “Qazaq memleketі zhane Zhoshy khan” (“Kazakh State and Jochi Khan”) was published in the Kazakh language in 2014 in Kazakhstan. There are very few studies in Kazakhstan published in the Kazakh language on the Golden Horde history. Most historians writing in Russian and English about the Golden Horde history are not familiar with research literature published in other languages. In this review, we note the following errors of the author: 1. Purely grammatical errors when writing the names of the historians engaged in all aspects of the history of the ulus of Jochi. 2. Negligence in the design of the monograph, which often do not bear the full output of books and articles that are referenced by the author, neither there is a single list of references at the end of the monograph. 3. Fantastic map of the ulus of Jochi, which contains a lot of factual errors. 4. Ignorance of the historiography of modern research of the ulus of Jochi. From this derive such errors as: naming Jochi with the title of khan, while he was not a khan; confusion with the localization of the Ak Horde and Kok Horde; ignorance of the fact that Abul Khair Khan became khan only in 1430; uncritical confidence in such unreliable source as Natanzi; improper and unreasoned periodization of the history of the Eastern part of the ulus of Jochi; ignorance of the fact that Berke did not come to power in 1257 but a little later; ignorance of the name of khan Tuda-Mengu when listing the Golden Horde khans; errors in compiling genealogies of the Jochids; incorrect genealogy of the Golden Horde khan Kutlug Timur and his descendants; erroneous etymology of the ethnonym “Kazak” by attributing to it the origin from the ancient Saks; numerous errors in the chronology of the eastern part of the ulus of Jochi; pseudo-scientific etymology of the origin of the term Juz from the ancient Xiongnu as well as pseudo-scientific attempt to find the roots of the Kazakh ethnic territory in the realm of the Black Sea Saks (Scythians).

220-231

Authors: Hautala R.

This article contains a report on the international conference organized by the University of Leiden in May 2015. According to its organizers, this conference has become the first Western European symposium dedicated to the study of the long history of the Golden Horde. The conference became a fruitful meeting place of the leading Russian and Tatar historians and archaeologists with their Western colleagues from the Netherlands, United Kingdom, United States of America, Hungary, Poland, and Finland. International participants of the Leiden conference discussed the most topical issues of historiography associated with eventful history of the Golden Horde. In particular, the conference participants paid special attention to the study of the administration of the ulus of Jochi that naturally combined governmental models of the Mongol Empire of the Chingizids with local administrative elements. A separate section of the conference was devoted to the analysis of the religious policy of the Golden Horde khans, where special attention was paid to the historiographical debate on the Islamization of the ulus of Jochi. The conference participants also paid considerable attention to the consideration of the material culture of the Golden Horde known both from written sources and, above all, from the materials of archaeological findings. Also, a number of reports of the conference was devoted to foreign and domestic policies of the Golden Horde rulers, at the same time reflecting the central geopolitical role of the ulus of Jochi on the Eurasian continent and the high level of civilization of the Golden Horde. The main achievement of the Leiden conference was a statement on the need of deeper study of the Golden Horde history in order to overcome a number of stereotypes regarding misconceptions of the ulus of Jochi represented as backward and parasitic State formation. The conference participants agreed in general opinion about the necessity of similar academic symposiums to intensify international contacts between researchers of the Golden Horde history.

21-50

Authors: Mayorov A.V.

The paper analyzes the sources of information on the direct contact of the Emperor Frederick II with the Mongols before the attack of the latter on Europe, the persistent rumors of his collusion with the invaders, who came to blow mainly to the enemies of Frederick, the refusal of the Emperor of an armed clash with the Tatars, the refusal to participate in the Crusade prepared by the German prelates against the Tatars, but instead – a withdrawal of the imperial troops in Italy and the siege of Rome in order to force the pope to recognize the supremacy of the Emperor, the sudden retreat of the Tartars themselves from the German border and the abandonment of the original plans for the conquest of Germany, unexpected counteraction against Frederick of the German prelates who had been previously loyal to the Emperor and who accused him of a serious crime against the Church and the whole of Christianity. The author concludes that the Emperor Frederick and the leaders of the Western Mongol campaign were associated with secret mutual obligations. Many of his contemporaries were aware of the Emperor’s secret contacts with the Tartars (Albert von Beheim, Matthew Paris, and others.). The author analyzes the information and is trying to separate the elements of political propaganda from the established facts. The Emperor’s conspiracy with the Tatar leaders is indicated both by direct evidence and numerous indirect information analyzed in the article. On the one hand, the Emperor did everything possible to avoid a direct military confrontation with the Tatars and disrupt plans of his supporters in Germany to combat the invaders. On the other hand, the Tatar impact in Europe fell entirely on the Frederick’s enemies who took the side of the pope in the latter’s conflict with Emperor. As a result of the Tatar invasion of Europe position of the Emperor in his confrontation with the Roman church greatly strengthened. This change in the balance of power obviously angered the church prelates and the subsequent rebellion of the German Bishops against Frederick provoked long civil war in Germany.

65-80

Authors: Uzelac A.

This paper discusses events in the Pontic steppes after the death of Noghai and efforts of khan Tokhta aimed at the reorganization of the right wing of the Ulus of Juchi. The political instability, bloody conflicts among Noghai’s sons, as well as conspiracies and revolts in which the khan’s closest relatives also participated had grave demographic and economic consequences in the region lying between the Dnieper and Danube rivers. More than two years passed before Tokhta finally managed to establish the presence of central authority, while dealing with another important task at the same time – assertion of the Tatar supremacy in the lands bordering the Golden Horde.

88-102

Authors: Fazlioğlu I.

The Turkish author Ihsan Fazlioğlu presents to attention of readers the third part of the article “A Masterpiece of Computational Mathematics” (“et-Tuhfe fî ilmi’l-hisâb”). The author of this article presents the first example of an established scientific activity in the Golden Horde, which began before Janibek khan, during the reign of Uzbek khan. The work written in the Golden Horde on a mathematical topic occupies a special place because of the information contained therein. This treatise shows that the scientific activity in the Golden Horde, which began with the conversion to Islam, brought results in a short time and laid the foundations for “break-throug” during the reign of Janibek khan. The author examines this composition from a historical perspective. The Computational book “et-Tuhfe fî ilmi’l-hisâb”, whose author is unknown, was handed during the reign of Uzbek Khan (1313–1342) to the ruler of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde Ebul-Muzaffer Giyaseddin Tuluktemir bey. After mentioning the distinguishing features of the work, the author pays particular attention to the definition of numbers, which is attributed to Muhammad b. Musa al-Khwarizmi and which, at the moment, is not recorded elsewhere. The author analyzes the formula of approximate values of square and cube roots of irrational numbers proposed by Muhammad al-Khwarizmi, Abdulkadir al-Baghdadi, and the teacher of the author, Saduruddin al-Farazi. This part examines issues such as numbers and their characteristics, approximate values of square and cube roots of irrational numbers, the square and cube root of irrational numbers. Analysis of the works show that Islamic mathematics in the Golden Horde developed to a serious level.

129-149

Authors: Mustakimov I.A.

Article discusses the features of using the term of Boz Horde in the territory of the ulus of Jochi. By involving the Turkic and Mongolian sources of the 16th–19th centuries, the author compares the term of Boz Horde with widespread color designations of Aq Horde and Kok Horde that were used in the Golden Horde. Thus, the author attempts to clarify the semantics, time, and circumstances of the emergence of this color term. Initially, there was a legend in the Dasht-i Kipchak about how Genghis Khan granted Batu and Ordu, the eldest sons of Jochi, with Aq Horde and Kok Horde symbolizing the two wings of the ulus of Jochi. According to the author, the emergence of the term of Boz Horde could be associated with the strengthening of Shibanids in the Golden Horde and the need to justify their claim to the throne of Sarai in the second half of the 14th century. Later, as a result of the Golden Horde dissolution and degradation of possessions of the heirs of this State, along with the term of “Aq Horde”, the term of “Boz Horde”, apparently, began labeling in general the khan’s yurt / horde / inheritance without specific dynastic affiliation of particular khan. On the other hand, it should be noted that the white color was not only a symbol of the White Horde precedence over the Blue Horde in the wings’ system of the “White Horde – Blue Horde”, but could also be used outside this dichotomy along with the term of the Golden Horde, as equivalent to the term “great, regal”. Thus, we can assume that the representatives of different Jochid branches could appropriate the term of Aq Horde for reasons of prestige in a changing political environment of the ulus of Jochi.

163-186

Authors: Abibullaeva E.E.

This study is based on the Kadiasker notebooks materials (Court registries), which represent a valuable source of the Crimean Khanate history. To date, these regulatory documents have been studied partially because they represent Ottoman arabografic manuscripts of the 17th–18th centuries, which makes them difficult to study. The topic will be considered in the context of the medieval (islamic) city of Bakhchisaray. Due to the extant Court Registries of the 17th–18th centuries, it has become possible today to provide the most complete picture of the social life of the medieval city and its neighborhoods. The study of revealed names of neighborhoods allowed us to successfully identify the citizens’ occupation and social structure of urban society. The conducted overview of the data for each block of the past century has shown that the name of blocks tend to be very durable, though did not remain unchanged. Tracing the century after century changes in the composition and names of the urban neighborhoods by the use of matched written and ethnographic (questionnaire) data as well as observations of the historically appearance of the city of Bakhchisaray, lead the author to the conclusion that the formation of residential areas was one of the manifestations of the city development. The locations of some of the neighborhoods were determined based on the information of court registries and extant monuments of medieval Bakhchisaray. Unfortunately, identifying of approximate boundaries of all blocks is a challenging task, due to the fact that not all the mosques, fountains, madrassas and other architectural buildings, which are guides in our study, are preserved. In turn, the Kadiasker notebooks are also partially preserved, and they are one of the few sources that allow detailed study of ethnography issues, Muslim law and history of the Crimean Khanate.

197-230

Authors: Beisembiev T.K.

The article continues a series of Beisembiev’s publications on “Jawāmi ul-Hikāyāt wa Lawāmi’ ul-Riwāyāt” by Sadid al-Din Muhammad al-‘Awfi (completed in the second quarter of the 13th century), the largest literary and historical prosaic work in Persian classical literature of pre-Mongol and Mongol periods. It contains a collection of over 2,100 stories (very poorly studied) on diverse subjects. Up to the present, a complete scholarly edition of this greatest historical source is not available. On the basis of all available publications and a manuscript copy of the early 14th century, Supplément Persan 95 (La Bibliothèque nationale de France), the author presents for the first time his Russian commented translation of 52 Awfi’s stories (hikayat) on the Ghaznavids, Samanids, Karakhanids, Seljukids and Khwa­rezmshahs and provides their interpretation. The titles of the stories, absent in the original, are invented by the translator. Each title is indicated by those number in parentheses, which is specified in the fundamental study on ‘Awfi by Muhammad Nizam ud-Din [40]. At the end of each story there is indicated, in square brackets, a bibliographical reference to the source, from which its translation was made. The “Repertoire” of ‘Awfi containing stories about the Samanids, Karakhanids, Seljukids and Khwarezmshahs is followed by a summarized table of all stories by ‘Awfi pertaining to these dynasties (totally 78 stories, from which 27 translated previously, with bibliographical notes to their publication). Analysis of the works on the dynasties in question by the famous academics (V.V. Bartold, V.A. Gordlevsky, C.E. Bosworth, S.G. Agadjanov, Z.M. Bu­niya­tov, N.N. Negmatov and B.D. Kochnev) shows that, unfortunately, none of them pay due attention to the valuable information of ‘Awfi. The author hopes that his publication will provide a deeper understanding in the study of Central Asian history as well as that of other regions in the pre-Mongol period.

237-239

Authors: Sabdenova G.E.

The International Research Roundtable “New Approaches to the Study of Eurasian History in the early 21st century: A Comparative Analysis of American, European, and post-Soviet Experiences” was held in Almaty December 19, 2014. The round table was organized by the Faculty of History, Archaeology, and Ethnology of the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University. The conference was attended by renowned experts. Professor Talas Omarbekovich Omarbekov was the moderator of this round table. Each report was followed by a discussion. Among others, the following reports were presented at the conference: Uli Schamiloglu, “The Plague in the Time of Justinian and Central Eurasian History”; G.A. Bordyugov, “An Applied History: Developing Methods of Historical Knowledge in the Situation of an Interdisciplinary Inevitability”; Mehmet Şahingöz, “Problems of Studying the History of Jungar Invasion and Its Influence on the Turkic World in Turkey”; R.R. Gallyamov, “Etnogony as a Way to Study the Early Ethnogenesis and Ethnic History of Turkic Peoples of Central Eurasia”; Mehmet Derviş, “Problems of Studying the History of the Turkic Peoples in the Context of World History”; Roman Hautala, “On the Need of Introduction in Academic Circulation of New Sources on the Golden Horde History”; Ilnur Mirgaleev, “Activities of the Center for Research on the Golden Horde History”; Svetlana Hautala, “About Discrepancy of Information of the Written Sources and Material Artifacts: Herodotus on the Scythian Cauldrons”.

33-49

Authors: Zhdanovich O.P.

Based on the information of Byzantine authors (Ammianus Marcellinus, Priscus Panites, Procopius of Caesarea, Agathius Myrine, Menander Protector), this paper explores the relationship between the Byzantines and nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe – the Huns, Turks, and Avars. The author illuminates the peculiarities of perception of the nomadic barbarians from the point of view of the Byzantine imperial worldview. Based on the analysis of the Byzantine sources, the author has attempted to uncover the Romans’ subjective perception of the eastern steppe civilizations. This article contains some information about the appearance, customs, traditions, and way of life of nomads, their relations with the Byzantine Empire since the advent of the hordes of Huns in its territory in the late 4th century up to diplomatic relations with the first steppe empire – the Great Turkic Khaganate as well as Avar khanate in the 6th century. Author clarified the propensity of eastern nomadic and western settled civilizations to the establishment of bilateral contacts and traced the dynamics and evolution of their mutual relationship. The author translated from ancient Greek the fragments of works of early Byzantine authors contained in this article.

68-94

Authors: Maiorov A.V.

The paper analyzes the sources of information on the direct contact of the Emperor Frederick II with the Mongols before the attack of the latter on Europe, the persistent rumors of his collusion with the invaders, who came to blow mainly to the enemies of Frederick, the refusal of the Emperor of an armed clash with the Tatars, the refusal to participate in the Crusade prepared by the German prelates against the Tatars, but instead – a withdrawal of the imperial troops in Italy and the siege of Rome in order to force the pope to recognize the supremacy of the Emperor, the sudden retreat of the Tartars themselves from the German border and the abandonment of the original plans for the conquest of Germany, unexpected counteraction against Frederick of the German prelates who had been previously loyal to the Emperor and who accused him of a serious crime against the Church and the whole of Christianity. The author concludes that the Emperor Frederick and the leaders of the Western Mongol campaign were associated with secret mutual obligations. Many of his contemporaries were aware of the Emperor’s secret contacts with the Tartars (Albert von Beheim, Matthew Paris, and others.). The author analyzes the information and is trying to separate the elements of political propaganda from the established facts. The Emperor’s conspiracy with the Tatar leaders is indicated both by direct evidence and numerous indirect information analyzed in the article. On the one hand, the Emperor did everything possible to avoid a direct military confrontation with the Tatars and disrupt plans of his supporters in Germany to combat the invaders. On the other hand, the Tatar impact in Europe fell entirely on the Friedrich’s enemies who took the side of the pope in the latter’s conflict with Emperor. As a result of the Tatar invasion of Europe position of the Emperor in his confrontation with the Roman church greatly strengthened. This change in the balance of power obviously angered the church prelates and the subsequent rebellion of the German Bishops against Friedrich provoked long civil war in Germany.

106-127

Authors: Fazlioğlu I.

The Turkish author Ihsan Fazlioğlu presents to attention of readers the second part of the article “A Masterpiece of Computational Mathematics” (“et-Tuhfe fî ilmi’l-hisâb”). The author of this article presents the first example of an established scientific activity in the Golden Horde, which began before Janibek khan, during the reign of Uzbek khan. The work written in the Golden Horde on a mathematical topic occupies a special place because of the information contained therein. This treatise shows that the scientific activity in the Golden Horde, which began with the conversion to Islam, brought results in a short time and laid the foundations for “breakthrough” during the reign of Janibek khan. The author examines this composition from a historical perspective. The Computational book “et-Tuhfe fî ilmi’l-hisâb”, whose author is unknown, was handed during the reign of Uzbek Khan (1313–1342) to the ruler of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde Ebul-Muzaffer Giyaseddin Tuluktemir bey. After mentioning the distinguishing features of the work, the author pays particular attention to the definition of numbers, which is attributed to Muhammad b. Musa al-Khwarizmi and which, at the moment, is not recorded elsewhere. The author disputes the capacity for understanding of the evidence used in the calculation, surveying, and algebra, and will consider definitions with respect to the theory of numbers. Further, the author will analyze the formula of approximate values of square and cube roots of irrational numbers proposed by Muhammad al-Khwarizmi, Abdulkadir al-Baghdadi, and the teacher of the author, Saduruddin al-Farazi. This part examines the author of the work and features of his age as well as the scientific environment that contributed to the writing of the “et-Tuhfe fî ilmi’l-hisâb”. The article presents the contents of the work and familiarizes the reader with the scientists and their works, which are referenced by the author.

136-145

Authors: Mirgaleev I.М.

The present article examines the place of the Golden Horde in the system of international relations of the 13th–14th centuries as well as directions of its foreign policy. To determine the place of the ulus of Jochi in the international system the author suggests to disclose the subject through illumination of such important issues as: – the Mongol conquests and creation of the Chingisid state entities, the establishment of a new international order. – formation of the ulus of Jochi as an independent State and its role in the Chingisid States’ relations, the kurultai of 1269. – international activities of the Golden Horde State during the period of its might. – interstate coalitions in the global geopolitics and national interests of the ulus of Jochi in international systems. – The role and place of the Golden Horde in the international life of the second half of the 14th – early 15th centuries. The program activity of the Jochids in a new geopolitical situation of the late 14th – early 15th centuries. The author believes that the establishment of the Golden Horde State occurred in three phases (1207–1241, 1242–1259, 1260–1269). The Jochids’ policy towards their neighbors and other Chingisid states formed during this time. Both the Distemper of the 1360–70’s in the ulus of Jochi and destruction of all other Chingisid States resulted in the Golden Horde’s loss of its place in the system of international relations. Therefore, the program activity of the Jochids in a new geopolitical situation of the late 14th – early 15th centuries, was aimed at restoring the international authority of the State. The author considers the directions of the Golden Horde foreign policy, which were laid down during the reign of Berke khan and remained a priority until the end of the 14th century.

171-177

Authors: Ismagilova M.R., Shagaviev D.A.

The presented fragment is the next part of the translation of the medieval poetic text “Qalandar-name” written by Abu Bakr Qalandar, the Sufi scholar from the Crimea. This Chapter is devoted to praises to ‘Umar ibn Khattab al-Faruq (The Distinguish), the Successor of the Prophet Muhammad, the second of the four Righteous Caliphs (al-Khulafa al-Rashidun). Within the nine rows the author mentions the virtues of ‘Umar making the main emphasis on his active support for Islam and justice for people. The Persian text is translated by Milyausha Ismagilova, the postgraduate student. The translation’s edition and comments are supplied by Damir Shagaviev, Head of the Department of History of Religions and Social Thought at the Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AS RT (Kazan).

207-214

Authors: Sidorovich S.V.

The author of the article continues the study of Russian translation of the monument “Dai Yuan gurun-i suduri” – Manchu variant of the “Yuanshi” (The History of the Yuan [dynasty]) chronicle. The two most typical examples of erroneous interpretation were cited from the recently published translation of the fourth scroll of the monument and then analyzed. Also the author’s own variant of the translation is offered. Thinking over the causes of the errors in translation of the particular parts of the monument, the author points at the necessity of comparison of the Manchu version with the primary source written in Chinese and appealing to more additional information, i.e. sources and researches.

220-222

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M.

The International Conference “Documents on the Tatar History and Culture in Foreign Archives” has been held in Kazan 1st – 2nd October, 2014. The conference was organized by Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan and the Chief Archive Department under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Tatarstan. The conference was held within the framework of the State program of the Republic of Tatarstan “Preservation of National Identity of the Tatar People (2014–2016)”. The conference was organized in the form of a round table, where each report has been discussed. The moderators of the conference were M.M. Gibat­dinov and I.M. Mirgaleev, researchers of Sh.Marjani Institute of History. During the conference there has been discussed the issue of strengthening the study of foreign archives