Tyragetia

9-23

Authors: Valentin Tomuleţ

In the present study, based on a rich factual material, the author analyzes two types of historical sources for studying the demographic and socioeconomic issues of Bessarabia in the modern era – lists of the population (especially fiscal lists) and official Russian statistics. The author emphasizes that when investigating a particular issue, the historian / researcher uses various historical sources, and lists of the population and statistical documents are important sources for studying the history of Bessarabia.

31-43

Authors: Katarzyna Niemczyk

Since the fall of the Constantinople in 1453, the question of the Turkish threat was especially serious in Europe. This fear became even graver among Europeans after the conquest of the Killia and Akkerman by Turkey in 1484. Sultan Bayezid II regarded Kilia as a door to Moldova and Hungary, and Akkerman as a door to Poland and Russia (Acta 1914, 38-39). This conquest gave them the possibilities to control the Polish and Hungarian trade in the Black Sea area and deprived Moldova of the huge part of their income (Czamańska 1996, 153-154; Pietkiewicz 2002, 148-149; Pietkiewicz 2003, 86; Pilat 2010, 123-136; Pilat 2013, 191; Gorovei 2003, 496-515; Cristea 2004, 25-36). From that time, the fear in Europe of the Turkish invasion, as well as of the awareness of the necessity to defeat this enemy was great. The idea of the crusade against “unbelievers” became very popular among Europeans, and it was the Eastern Europe that was seen as the Antemurale christianitatis in the future war. The anti-Turkish ideology was growing very popular.

55-65

Authors: Cătălina Chelcu

the subject of our research is the application of imprisonment as a constraint method applied to debtors in the second half of the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century, using documentary (published and unpublished) and narrative sources within this interval. Benefiting from legal theorising and classifications, we propose an approach – using our own means and methods – to the application of imprisonment for failing to pay back a debt to the prince, for failing to pay taxes or for not returning debts owned to different persons, for various causes, which were considered offences during that period. The execution of the sentence depended on its gravity; debtors were detained in various confinement places, with different degrees in terms of sentence execution regime “gros” [slammer], “groapa ocnii” [mine pit], “puşcărie” [prison], “temniţă” [gaol], “vartă” [jail], “opreală” [lockup]. The persons convicted belonged to different social categories. The dominant feature of this sentence to prison in the period under investigation here was intimidation, with the possibility of redemption using various means; this punishment had no corrective purposes, such as in modern law. In this stage of the research, it may be stated that imprisonment for debts was an efficient preventative coercion method for obtaining or recuperating the outstanding debts to the State and the loans taken from various creditors. The method was so effective firstly because the princes assumed it; its repression mechanism consisted mainly in the fact that the debtors in default wanted to regain their freedom: they were given a chance to do that by paying the debt.

81-90

Authors: Igor Sapozhnikov

The cave monastery of Saint Simeon by the Roghi Village on the Dniester River near the Moldavian town of Dubossary is the most mysterious historical and archaeological site of the Bug-Dniester interfluves. It was known at the end of the 18th century, but later scientists and villagers forgot about it. The article is devoted to the republishing of old works on this unique religious complex and the description of its objects (the church and the cell). Based on the analysis of images of stone crosses and a general historical situation in the Ottoman Ukraine, the author suggested that the monastery dates 1710s - 1730s.

101-109

Authors: Maria Danilov

The canonical and literary value of the sermons of the Orthodox hierarch Anthim the Iberian (circa 1650-1716) is well known. His books addressed to the Orthodox world were widely distributing as they were printed. Many of them were donated to Orthodox peoples, Constantinople or Jerusalem. Little is known, however, about the dissemination of these texts in Bessarabia in the 19th century. Because of the small number of copies identified de visu, Gabriel Ştrempel stated in 1962 that the manuscripts of Anthim the Iberian’s sermons had limited distribution. The Bessarabian manuscript’s copy created in 1824 at the Dobruşa Monastery was almost identical to the text of the Romanian manuscript 3460A (from the collection of the Library of the Romanian Academy), that was considered to be the oldest known in the Romanian area. But the Bessarabian manuscript of the Anthim’s sermons is devoid of the title page. It is problematic to determine which original the copy was made of in 1824 at the Dobruşa Monastery.

123-132

Authors: Andrei Emilciuc

Historical science today increasingly emphasize the role of the individual in the sphere of economic relations, especially the work of large industrialists and traders, their role in establishing links with various agents of foreign capital and in importing technical innovations and modern practices on the markets in which they were active. Unfortunately, the emphasis on the elite excludes a clear vision by the researcher of the mechanism of functioning of entrepreneurship at the lower level, of practices and techniques that give an idea of the peculiarities of the system of capitalist relations at the local and regional levels. In the present study we aim to examine these issues from the perspective of the guild merchants’ agents, who were at the bottom of the entrepreneurship pyramid. Based on the analysis of unpublished and published sources, of historical literature on economic relations in the Russian Empire during the 19th century, we came to the conclusion that in Bessarabia not only agents of local merchants, but also from other provinces acted. By the mid-1840s, commercial agents became the main commercial actors responsible for the bulk of commercial transactions, such as direct purchase of goods from various Bessarabian producers, as well as from fairs and markets, and even for the signing of contracts and agreements on behalf of guilds merchants. Their activities are reflected in the records of city dumas and magistrates, of the customs bodies of Bessarabia, in legal proceedings on various commercial matters, etc.

139-148

Authors: Eugen-Tudor Sclifos

After the Crimean War, the great powers drew attention to the issue of Bessarabia. According to the Paris Peace Treaty, signed on March 30, 1856, Southern Bessarabia was to be ceded to the Principality of Moldavia. Obviously, Russia could not accept the territorial changes that blocked its access to the Danube. Great Britain was Russia’s most irreconcilable opponent. France supported Russia in the matter of preserving Southern Bessarabia on the grounds that Bolgrad was the administrative center of the Bulgarian colonies in Bessarabia. But Britain took a tough stance, not allowing any violations of the treaty by Russia. British diplomacy insisted on the transfer of South Bessarabia to the Principality of Moldavia without granting Russia any territorial compensation. In the end, the issue of Southern Bessarabia was settled at the Paris Conference in January 1857.

159-165

Authors: Cristina Tănase

Since August 1914 in Braşov the actions in support of the army were often held; they were organized at different levels and intensified as the war progressed. A huge role in this belonged to the local elites, considered an example for society. Donations of money, clothes and food for soldiers and families who were left without means of subsistence were held, charitable concerts for widows and orphans of war were organized. In addition, the collection of metal for military purposes was organized. “Gold gab ich für Eisen” (“I give gold for iron”) is the motto of a charity action in support of the Austro-Hungarian army, which was initiated by the Austrian Society “Silver Cross” (“Crucea de argint”). In Braşov, the action was led by Countess Mikes and the director of the local branch of the National Bank Hugo Beer. The townspeople were called upon to donate gold jewelry; in exchange they were given iron rings with the engraved motto “Gold gab ich für Eisen 1914”.

179-184

Authors: Elena Ploşniţa

The author addresses the vicissitudes in the fate of the Monument to the Union (Monumentul Unirii) in Chişinău, the idea of which was proposed by P. Halippa in 1919. For twenty years the question of the construction of this monument in Chişinău stirred the minds of politicians, scientists, cultural figures, worried the whole society. Journalists from different periodicals also joined the discussion. The monument was to become a symbol of patriotism and was regarded as a tribute of thanks to all those who fought for national ideals and achieved the Unification. The idea of its creation was to consolidate society, reinforce the political act of March 27, 1918, preserve and strengthen the enthusiasm and hope of the Bessarabians. To achieve this idea, a Committee was established, which followed the legal, official way of implementing the task. The project of the monument was designed by the Bessarabian sculptor Alexandru Plămădeală and approved by the Higher Commission for Monuments under the Ministry of Religion and Arts. After the project was officially approved, the construction of the monument was to begin, especially since the Committee also managed to collect the necessary funds for this. But in 1937 another committee appeared that decided to perpetuate the act of unification of Bessarabia with Romania by installing in the city center a monument to Ferdinand I, a few minutes' walk from the place where it was planned to erect the Monument to the Union. It was the Committee of Officers and Soldiers of the Former Moldovan Army, headed by Gherman Pântea. The appearance and activities of the new committee caused confusion in society. The Bessarabian intelligentsia tried to resist the idea of building a monument to King Ferdinand I instead of the Monument to the Union. A campaign was launched to denigrate the committee of P. Halippa, who wholeheartedly cherished the idea of creating a monument to the Union. The epic with monuments was completed at the end of 1938. Dialogue between the two committees was impossible. There were proposals for their merger, but G. Pântea refused. The Committee for the Creation of a Monument to King Ferdinand I received the highest approval for the implementation of its project. In these circumstances, the Committee for the Creation of the Monument to the Union transferred the funds collected by it to the construction of the Palace of Culture. The opening of the monument to King Ferdinand I was to take place on September 25, 1938, but the event had to be postponed due to the clarification of the conflict situation between the two committees. The opening was postponed to November 6, 1938, but it was not until February 5, 1939. The monument to Ferdinand I was erected on the site of the monument to the Russian Tsar Alexander II. Experts in the field of architecture criticized the quality of work. The author of the monument to Ferdinand I was Oscar Khan. For many years in the Bessarabian society there was much controversy, skepticism and doubts about the need for a monument to the Union or a monument to King Ferdinand I. The intellectual forces of Bessarabia, divided by different theoretical concepts and practical solutions, failed to unite and consolidate society, on the contrary, some intellectuals contributed to its dissociation. The architectural landscape of Chişinău was not enriched by a monumental work that could strengthen the sense of national solidarity. Today, 100 years after the unification of Bessarabia with Romania, it is necessary to correct this omission – to erect the Monument to the Union in Chişinău.

195-214

Authors: Lilia Crudu

In this paper the author addresses the process of formation of the top echelon of the Moldavian Communist Party apparatus during the establishment and reestablishment of the Soviet power in Bessarabia in 1940-1941/1944. The core of the top party apparatus of the Moldavian SSR during the period under consideration were young Communists who arrived in / from the Moldavian ASSR, quickly established themselves and advanced to key administrative positions. They managed to make a dizzy career in the party after Stalin's repressions. Most secretaries of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Moldavia had a low educational level – primary or secondary education and were born in Ukraine or Russia. Among them there was not a single Bessarabian, and only one was from the left bank of the Dniester. And although in 1944 the leadership of the party apparatus of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Moldavia has undergone some changes, but its core remained practically the same. For this paper we used unpublished sources – documents of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Moldavia.

235-248

Authors: Marko Katić

This paper discusses the proskynetarion in a private collection. It belongs to a type of icons that were brought by pilgrims to the Holy Land. They were dated between the early 17th to the early 20th centuries. Such icons have also been preserved in both the Romanian and Moldovan areas. The icon was dated from 1818-1819, and was brought to pilgrim Petar from Pirot, a city in the southern Serbia. The icon is characterized by strong colors, primarily blue and red, as well as abundant use of gold. It is conceived as threpartite. The central part had the main representation of The Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. It featured architectural details made in the rebuilding after the 1808 fire. Other representations in this section were individual biblical events and legends believed to have happend in the Holy Land. On the left part was the representation of Eleusa tou Kikko, and on the right Christ Elkomenos. Both are representations of icons honored in Palestine in the early 19th century. They were surrounded by smaller scenes related to the cult of the Virgin and Christ. On the whole, the icon can be described as the topographic representation of the Holy Land. It was also a typical representative of the iconography of the Syrian-Palestinian region of this period, which united the features of Western painting and the Eastern iconography. These icons are numerous, but they are not widely known, and their study is still at the beginning.

267-271

Authors: Ana Griţco

Studying the collection of illustrated postcards from the collections of the National Museum of History of Moldova allows us to appreciate their documentary, artistic and museum significance. In the museum collection there are two old postcards with illustrations to the Mihai Eminescu’s works, which had been drawn by Leonard Salmen – the first illustrator of the great poet’s work. These are two pictures from a series of illustrations inspired by 98 poems: "To the star" ("La steaua") (postcard issued by the publishing house of the SOCEC et Co bookstore in Bucharest) and “In the evening on the hill” ("Sara pe deal"). Both postcards are made in sepia technique, with white margins; in the lower corner, on the image, there is the graphic artist’s signature. These postcards are part of the artistic legacy of Leonard Salmen, who created 639 illustrations for the works of M. Eminescu, some of which have several variants (“Călin. Pages of the fairy tale” (“Călin. File de poveste”) – 54 variants, “The Evening Star” (“Luceafărul”) – 34 variants of illustrations, etc.). The postcards with illustrations to the Eminescu’s works were in circulation from 1895 to the 1930s as a means of communication, especially between young people; they were distributed throughout the country and also sent abroad. For museums and collectors of postcards, the Salmen's drawings illustrating the Eminescu’s work are an exciting topic, and a special interest is to find all the old postcards of this series. Two postcards kept in the National Museum of History of Moldova contribute to the deltiological heritage conserned the Eminescu’s work, and also remind us of the work of the graphic artist Salmen, who is not well known.

283-288

Authors: Ana Griţco

The National Museum of the History of Moldova possesses a collection of clocks and watches, which served as the basis for the exhibition "Clocks in the Course of Time". About two hundred items, selected in form, variety, technical and artistic intricacies, help the museum fulfill its natural purpose, preserving and promoting the national cultural heritage, of which this collection of old clocks is also a part. It consists of devices of the 19th-20th centuries with the mechanisms produced in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy, Japan, Russia and the USSR. The clock is exhibited according to the typology, the most attractive are the wall pendulum clocks and grandfather clocks of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century of the famous watch brands “Gustav Becker”, “Junghans”, “Philip Haas”, “Le roi a Paris”, “Lenzkirch” and others. The extensive category of portable clocks includes table clocks of pleasant design, intended primarily for the morning wake of the owner, which are also called “alarm clocks”. Another category is pocket watches, originally considered a male accessory. These valuable items from the past were produced by Abraham Louis Brequet, Henry Moser, Pavel Bure, “Omega”, “Doxa”, “Junghans”, “Tochnoe vremea”, “ZiM” and others. Pocket watches were gradually ousted by .wrist watches. The majority of wrist watches in the museum collection are of Soviet manufacture: “Pobeda”, “Vostok”, “Polyot”, “Zvezda”. However, in the collection there are, though in a smaller number, watches of famous watch companies “Longines”, “Pavel Bure”, “H. Moser” and others. Of special interest in the museum collection are clocks and watches, which belonged to outstanding figures in science, medicine, culture, etc. The history of the clock would be incomplete without mentioning the tower clocks on the walls of the Chişinău buildings of the Lutheran Church, the Arch of Triumph, the Town Hall Tower, the Post Office, and the Railway Station, which are represented in the photographs.

297-302

Authors: Elena Postică

One of the first and at the same time the largest and most valuable collection of documents on the signatories of the Declaration of the Unification of Bessarabia with Romania was transferred to the National Museum of the History of Moldova from the archives of the former KGB in 1994. This is about 69 documents and photographs related to the materials of the criminal prosecution of members of Sfatului Ţării (Country Council), arrested by Soviet authorities in the summer of 1940. Among the arrested were lawyer Vladimir Bodescu, priest Alexandru Baltaga who represented the Bessarabian clergy in Sfatului Ţării, Emanoil Catelli, one of the initiators of the creation of Sfatului Ţării, Teodosie Cojocaru, one of the military leaders of Sfatului Ţării, Professor Teodor Neaga, Pantelimon Sinadino, representative of the Greek minority in Sfatului Ţării. Among those arrested also were Ion Ignatiuc, Grigore Turcuman, Ion Codreanu, Nicolae Secară, Teodor Uncu, Constantin Bivol, Ştefan Botnariuc and Luca Ştirbeţ. 14 persons in total.

311-313

Authors: Elena Postică

On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the Great Union, the National Museum of History of Moldova (Chisinau), the Museum of Bucovina (Suceava) and the National Museum of the Union (Alba Iulia) organized on March 27, 2018, at 18.30, a joint event, which was broadcasted live by TVR. In these museums, the opening of the anniversary exhibition “Centenary of Great Romania” was held simultaneously. The exhibition presented documents and photographs from the collections of the three museums and recreated the main stages of the Great Union that brought together all the Romanians in one country – Great Romania.

321-332

Authors: Anatolie Povestca

Dr. Daniel Ciugureanu was an outstanding personality of the Romanian people. He was part of the generation of the Union and along with the great representatives of that era contributed to the fulfillment of the aspirations of all Romanians about the unity of national territories. The unification of Bessarabia with Romania was his dream, the political ideal for which he fervently fought his whole life, arguing that there is no province more Romanian than Bessarabia, that this is a living part of a single body in which blood pulsates through the beating of the same heart. The role of Dr. Daniel Ciugureanu in joining Bessarabia can be comparable to that of Iuliu Maniu in the union of Transylvania with Romania. Two titans of the Romanian nation, who dedicated their lives to the ideal of national unity, found the tragic end – one died in a terrible communist prison in Sighet, the other – on the way to the same prison, in Turda. The name of Dr. Daniel Ciugureanu can rightfully be put alongside the great names in the Bessarabian political life of the early 20th century, such as Ioan Pelivan, Ştefan Ciobanu, Constantin Stere, Pantelimon Halippa, Professor Constantin Tomescu, General Ioan Riscanu.