Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal

127-135

Authors: Chali Dereje Kitila

Background: Water quality deterioration is becoming a serious challenge for water utility corporations supplying treated water through the use of a centralized distribution system. After water leaves the treatment plant and enters the distribution system, it is subjected to numerous complex physical, chemical, and biological changes. This study aimed to investigate the major physical factors deteriorating water quality in an aged distribution system. Methods: Deterioration modeling was undertaken using an EPANET computer program. For model calibration processes, data collected from field measurements were used. Descriptive statistics were employed to analyze the data. Water age and residual chlorine were selected parameters to investigate the deterioration level. The identification of major factors posing water quality changes was undertaken by examining distinct physical and operational settings. Results: The maximum water-age variation obtained between two extreme water-use periods was 21.97%. In the same way, the maximum residual chlorine concentration variation obtained was 11.68%. On the contrary, with tested extreme pipe sizes in the study, the maximum water-age variation obtained was only 0.93%. Whereas, the obtained maximum residual chlorine concentration variation between the two extreme pipe sizes was 21.03%. Conclusion: Water use variation poses more water quality degradation than pipe geometry. Water age in aged distribution is rarely influenced by conditions of pipe geometry.

147-159

Authors: Fateme Dehghan Banadaki, Mohammad Ali Nematollahi, Hamzeh Ali Jamali, Zahra Hamidi

Background: Wastewater from poultry slaughterhouses is a serious environmental threat if they are incompletely treated. Recently, the utilization of microalgal species has gained significant attention for treating such wastewater. Chlorella vulgaris is one of the most efficient microalgae for treating poultry slaughterhouse wastewater due to its exceptional capacity for N, P, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal. This study aimed to investigate the impact of initial total nitrogen concentration, total phosphorus, photoperiod, and cultivation time on reducing the organic load and enhancing the production of biomass in slaughterhouse wastewater. Methods: Samples were collected from the effluent of a poultry slaughterhouse and underwent qualitative analysis. C. vulgaris was cultivated in the BBM culture medium. Experiments were designed using the response surface method. The designed experiments were then carried out and the obtained data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), resulting in fitted models for the data on organic load removal and biomass production. Numerical optimization was performed to optimize COD removal and increase algal biomass. Finally, the models were validated. Results: The results demonstrated that the quadratic model has a good fit for COD removal and biomass increase data. In the optimal conditions, including TN = 600 mg/L, TP = 34 mg/L, culture duration = 15 d, and photoperiod = 12.6 hr, the COD removal efficiency and algal biomass production were 93.88% and 92.37%, respectively. Conclusion: Chlorella vulgaris exhibits significant potential for the removal of the organic load from poultry slaughterhouse effluent. Also, substantial algal biomass is generated, which can be used in various areas such as livestock feed and sanitary uses.

167-175

Authors: Mahdi Khaksar, Vali Alipour, Omid Rahmanian, Naeme Soltani

Background: Nitrate (NO3) is a necessary element for plant growth, but its excessive use in agricultural products causes different health problems. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between NO3 concentrations in vegetables and the prevalence of gastrointestinal cancers in Minab city, Iran. Methods: This case-control study was conducted on 60 people with cancer as the case group and 120 healthy people as the control group in Minab city. Data were collected through a questionnaire and measuring NO3 concentration levels in vegetables. All samples were examined for NO3 by reverse-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) method. Results: The concentration levels of NO3 in all vegetables ranged from 15.08 (onion) to 1143.55 mg/kg (spinach). There was no significant difference between the concentrations of NO3 in all vegetables among the different regions. The most common cancer in the case group was stomach cancer (61.7%). There was a significant difference between the amount of daily intake of NO3, through different vegetables, and the prevalence of gastrointestinal cancer between the case and control groups (P < 0.05). The results showed that increasing the consumption of vegetables increases the chance of getting gastrointestinal cancer (OR: 5.72; P < 0.001). Conclusion: According to the results, there is a significant relationship between the NO3 concentration in vegetables and the prevalence of gastrointestinal cancers in the studied areas. It is highly recommended to closely monitor the cultivation, fertilization, and spray process of agricultural products, and frequent monitoring of NO3 levels in fruits and vegetables.

191-199

Authors: Tajudeen Yahaya, Lawal Nana Aisha, Abdulrahman Sani Kalgo, Nasiru Muhammad, Muhammad-Jamil Abubakar, Mohammed Umar Faruk

Background: Fish are consumed worldwide due to their nutritional and health benefits; however, heavy metal pollution is compromising their safety. This study aimed to determine heavy metal safety in water and fish, specifically tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus), collected from Bunza River in Kebbi State, Nigeria. Methods: Water and fish samples underwent analysis for zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The obtained values were then utilized to assess the associated health risks. Results: The atomic absorption spectroscopy of fish revealed significant differences (P < 0.05) between heavy metal concentrations in the fish organs and FAO/WHO standards. It indicated non-tolerable concentrations of copper (1.77-5.24 mg kg-1) and lead (1.85-4.53 mg kg-1). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of Pb and Cd through fish consumption was above the recommended daily intake (RDI). However, the hazard quotient (HQ) and health risk index (HI) of all the heavy metals were within tolerable limits ( < 1). On water samples, non-tolerable levels of the heavy metals and significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed when compared with the standards. The water samples had average concentrations of Cu (4.64 ± 0.62 mg kg-1), Pb (1.78 ± 0.70 mg kg-1), Cd (0.50 ± 0.02 mg kg-1), and Zn (18.90 ± 3.08 mg kg-1). The average daily ingestion (ADI) and HQ of the heavy metals through the consumption of the water were above the recommended limits. Conclusion: Based on the results, the fish and water samples could cause heavy metal-related toxicity. There is a need for policies aimed at decontaminating the river.

211-218

Authors: Mina Janghorban, Masoud Rismanchian, Adel Mohammadalipour, Mohammad Hashemnia, Sara Karimi Zeverdegani

Background: Welding is an extensively utilized industrial technique, which involves the fusion of fumes containing various heavy metals. To protect exposed workers, it is crucial to investigate the subsequent adverse effects. This study aimed to carry out the welding process within a regulated welding chamber and examine the effects of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) as antioxidant enzymes and pathological damage on rat testicular tissue. Methods: Male adult Wistar rats (n = 7/experiment group) were exposed to an average concentration of (44.48 mg/m3) welding fumes (WFs) for 30 min/d × 8 days through shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). The control group (n = 7) was in similar conditions without direct exposure to WFs. Results: The metal composition of WFs was found to contain iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr). Among these metals, Fe had the highest average concentration (12.06 mg/m3), while Cu displayed the lowest one (0.019 mg/m3). The majority of the produced particles were found within the micron size range (0.25 to 0.5 μm). The mean activity of GPX and SOD was determined 15.16777 (mU/mg protein) and 81.955 (U/mg protein) in the exposed group, respectively. In the microscopic examination of testis tissue, some complications were observed. Conclusion: Oxidative damage occurred in the testicular tissue of experimental rats by decreasing the mean activity of antioxidant enzymes. Besides, the exposed group showed reduced sperm quality and quantity indexes.

229-236

Authors: Ameena Mayeen Siyad, Subramaniam Ramanarayanan, Jesline Merly James, Priya Babu, Suneesh Kuruvilla, Gis George

Background: Optimal feeding of children with adequate nutrients is regarded as the most effective method for proper growth and development, which occurs rapidly during the first few years of life. In this regard, Ayurvedic nutritional supplements and herbal medicines are given in infancy and early childhood. This age group is of utmost importance in dentistry. Plants and herbal derivatives are rich sources of fluoride. Hence, monitoring of ingested fluoride levels during this stage is of utmost importance to optimize its intake and avoid toxicity. The study assessed and compared the fluoride concentration in preparations of indigenous Ayurvedic prescribed for infants, toddlers, and preschool children in Kerala, India. Methods: In this laboratory study, three samples each of nine indigenous Ayurvedic preparations of solid, semi-solid, and liquid forms were used. Fluoride level was measured by high range fluoride colorimeter—Checker HC—Hanna Instruments, based on sodium 2-(parasulphophenylazo)-1,8- dihydroxy-3,6-naphthalene disulphonate (SPADNS) method, and recorded in parts per million (ppm). Results: Among powder forms, the highest fluoride concentration was observed for Gopichandanadi (2.40 ± 2.02 ppm). Among semi-solid and liquid forms, the highest concentration was found in Chyavanaprasha (1.30 ± 1.73 ppm) and Indukantham syrup (9.8 ± 0.10 ppm), respectively. The highest mean fluoride concentration was obtained from liquid forms, followed by solid forms, and the lowest one was present in semi-solid forms. Conclusion: Although the concentration of fluoride varied across the various forms of preparation, none of them exceeded the safely tolerated dose (STD) of 8-16 mg/kg.

1-7

Authors: Naris Dyah Prasetyawati, Suranto Tjiptowibisono, Pranoto Pranoto, Sunarto Sunarto

Background: Knowing the root causes of air pollution in urban areas will determine the next actions to take. Analyzing the impact caused by air pollution will make it easier to determine the control efforts to be carried out. Determining control objectives makes the efforts more targeted. Air pollution can be controlled through abiotic, biotic, and cultural factors. Methods: Primary data collection was carried out and used secondary data. This study aimed to find the causes of air pollution in urban areas using the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis method so that it can see what efforts are appropriate to do. Results: It was revealed that the government’s efforts to control air pollution have been carried out continuously and in multi-sectoral ways, but the socialization of the impact of air pollution has not been conveyed to the community continuously and has not been on target. Conclusion: Noise and dust are still the main problems affecting air quality in urban areas. Another problem is in human behavior as an affected and interested party. The potential for controlling air pollution can be carried out by combining the strengths and opportunities that are owned optimally and multi-sectorally.

15-24

Authors: Mitra Naderipour, Majid Hashemi, Moghaddameh Mirzaei, Ali Akbar Haghdoost, Maryam Faraji

Background: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between demographic, social, and ecological factors, as well as underlying diseases (diabetes, kidney, liver, and hypertension) with the COVID-19 mortality rate in the city of Kerman. Methods: The present cross-sectional study was carried out on 200 COVID-19 survivors and 200 hospitalized deceased patients after infection to COVID-19 from March 2019 to March 2020. Logistic regression and Poisson regression were used to assess the relationship between demographic, social factors, underlying diseases, ecological parameters, and mortality rate. Results: The COVID-19 mortality rate in the affected population (n = 6966 people) was 19.5%. The affected people were over 60 years old, male, Iranian, and married in more than half of the cases. A significant difference was observed between the two groups in terms of age (P < 0.001). However, there was no significant difference between hospitalized deceased patients and survivors in terms of social variables. Diabetes (OR = 1.79; 1.1 to 3.17), hypertension (OR = 1.6; 1.02 to 2.52), and liver disease (OR = 5.13; 1.05 to 24.99) had a significant effect on the mortality rate due to COVID-19 infection. The risk of COVID-19 death has significantly reached 0.96; in other words, decreased by 4% (P = 0.03), for a one-degree increase in the average rainfall during the studied period. Conclusion: Finally, the prevalence of underlying diseases in the hospitalized deceased patients was more than that in the survivors. The results of the present study are expected to have preventive interventions and identify risk factors for mortality in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 and similar diseases.

31-38

Authors: Hoda Allami, Afsaneh Afzali, Rouhollah Mirzaei

Background: In recent years, the pollution of heavy metals in the beaches has been noticed due to the increase of human activities. This study aimed to evaluate heavy metal pollution, its ecological risk, and possible sources in the coastline of Dayer Port, Bushehr province. Methods: The sediment samples were collected from 8 stations with different uses in 0-5 and 5-20 cm depths. The samples were evaluated to measure the concentration of Pb, Cu, Ni, and Mn after acid digestion by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Subsequently, the ecological risk index was used to evaluate the environmental risk potential caused by heavy metal pollution. The statistical analysis was used to determine the source of pollutants and their relationship. Results: The average concentration of Mn, Ni, Cu, and Pb were 218.59, 10.44, 11.78, and 7.81 μg g-1 in surface sediments and 278.05, 15.79, 12.74, and 10. 75 μg g-1 in deep sediments, respectively. The results of evaluating the ecological risk index caused by heavy metal pollution in the coastal sediments of the studied area showed that the environmental risk is low ( > 150). The results of multivariate statistical analyses showed that the investigated metals are of natural and anthropogenic origin mainly natural sources. Conclusion: The presence of heavy metals in all collected sediment samples shows that heavy metals are common pollutants in the study area. As a result, regular monitoring of the area is important to control and reduce heavy metal pollution.

51-59

Authors: Nabaa Shakir Hadi

Background: This study examined the effects of the Al-Rustumiya sewage treatment station on the heavy metals (Fe, Zn, and Mn) that pollute the Diyala River. Methods: Samples of water, sediment, and aquatic vegetation were collected monthly from Diyala River at four locations between March 2022 and February 2023. The samples were collected using standard sampling methods and analyzed with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Results: The order of heavy metals in water was: Fe > Mn > Zn, both in the dissolved and particulate phases. The sediment was ordered in the exchangeable and residual phases: Fe > Mn > Zn, while in aquatic plants, the order in leaves was: Fe > Zn > Mn, and in roots: Zn > Fe > Mn. According to the findings, the particulate phase of water contained greater quantities of heavy metals than the dissolved phase. The sediment concentrations in the residual phase exceeded those in the exchangeable phase, while the roots of aquatic plants had higher concentrations than their leaves. Conclusion: As Al-Rustumiya station’s streams flow into the river, the concentrations of heavy metals in the water increase. This has a deleterious effect on aquatic life and the agricultural area on both sides that rely on the river’s water for irrigation. This research concentrates on the destiny and processes of transmission in the lotic aquatic system for heavy metals (Fe, Zn, and Mn). As there is a cumulative effect from these metals, appropriate measures are necessary by the relevant agencies to address this problem.

71-81

Authors: Tanushree Samanta, Anup Jana, Suman Kalyan Khanra, Sagarika Mukhopadhyay

Background: Industrialization and urbanization in developing countries are the major issues responsible for producing colossal amounts of waste (about 51.35 tons per day). Midnapore municipality as a class-I town (> 100 000 population) puts in a large amount of solid waste without any treatment facility in its districts. Thus, disposal as well as treatment is an area of concern. Waste that comes from different sources could have some beneficial effects along with potentially hazardous side effects. So, finding out the issues is important. Methods: After selecting the study area, soil samples were collected from five different dumping sites. Different plant micronutrient and heavy metal content of soil samples have been done by spectrophotometric method and atomic absorption spectroscopic analysis. Soil pollution indices geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (Cf), ecological risk index (Er), pollution load index (PLI), and modified degree of contamination (MDC) were calculated by standard formulas. Results: This study shows the presence of a wide variety of elements that have bio-potential. This reveals that it can be used to promote soil fertility due to increases in parameters like soil nitrogen (0.165 ± 0.047%), phosphorus (63.558 ± 15.82 mg/kg), organic carbon (4.22 ± 1.838%), potassium (0.308 ± 0.078%), etc. Assessments of pollution indices showed moderate heavy metal contamination in the study areas. Conclusion: According to the results of the present study, the soil fertility parameters in the dumping ground are high and can be reused as organic manure; the only issue is a low to moderate level of heavy metal contamination.

93-104

Authors: Zahra Jamshidinasirmahale, Ahmadreza Yazdanbakhsh, Mohamadreza Masoudinejad, Nadali Alavi Bakhtiarvand

Background: Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) of various wastes is a suitable method for the removal of contaminants and biogas production. The first aim of this study was to determine the optimal ratio of landfill leachate (LL) and sewage sludge (SS) for AcoD, and the second one was to evaluate the effect of pre-ozonation of the mixture on AcoD. Methods: The LL and SS samples were taken from landfill sites and municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWTPs), respectively. In the first step, five reactors were used and named R1 (100% SS), R2(100% LL), R3 (15% LL/85% SS), R4 (25% LL/75% SS), and R5 (45% LL/55% SS). Mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) was performed on the reactors and the optimal ratio was determined. In the second stage, the optimal mixtures were subjected to an ozonation process before AcoD. Results: The results of the first stage showed that the highest efficiency removal of the total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), and chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the highest biogas production belonged to R3 digester, containing 15% LL and 85% SS. In the second stage, the results showed that the removal efficiency of COD and VS in the ozonated sample at the dosage of 7.6 gO3/h were 29.8% and 36.6% higher than the non-ozonated sample, respectively. Furthermore, in the ozonated sample, the biogas yield and the content of methane in the gas mixture were 27% and 9% higher respectively, compared to the non-ozonated sample. Conclusion: According to the results, the appropriate ratio of LL to SS and pre-ozonation of LL/SS mixture have a great impact on the performance of AcoD.

353-360

Authors: Lelisa Regea Mengistu, Chali Dereje Kitila

Background: Electrocoagulation is becoming a promising eco-friendly wastewater treatment technique. It is a low-cost wastewater treatment method suitably applied for various wastewater effluent characteristics. Nevertheless, there are different kinds of electrocoagulation; comparison among them in terms of nutrient removal is investigated in the present research. This study analyzed nitrate (NO3 -) and phosphate (PO4 3-) removal potential of the sono-alternative and direct-current electrocoagulation process. Methods: Batch reactor and sono-direct current (SDC)/sono-alternative current (SAC) electrocoagulation cell were employed to investigate NO3 - and PO4 3- removal efficiency from domestic effluents. The data gathered from laboratory experiments were analyzed using response surface methodology (RSM). ANOVA was used to examine the interaction effects of diverse parameters in terms of NO3 _ and PO4 3- removal from domestic wastewater effluents. Results: At extreme experimental conditions, the percentage of NO3 - and PO4 3- removal attained with sono-direct current electrocoagulation (SDCE) and sono-alternative current electrocoagulation (SACE) were 96.5%, 96.2% and 96.8%, 96.5, respectively. The SACE was more successful in eliminating NO3 - and PO4 3- than the SDCE process. The appearance of resistant oxide coating on the cathode and the appearance of corrosion on the anode due to oxidation processes in the case of SDCE were identified as principal factors highly affecting NO3 - and PO4 3- removal efficiency. Conclusion: With optimum process efficiency, experimental findings show that the SACE process is more capable of NO3 - and PO4 3- removal than the SDCE process.

373-387

Authors: Mohammad Ali Zazouli, Yalda Hashempour, Alireza Ala

Background: Removing natural organic substances from drinking water sources is necessary to prevent the formation of toxic and carcinogenic disinfection by-products (DBPs). The nano-photocatalytic oxidation process to remove these substances is easier, faster, cheaper, and more efficient than other methods. Methods: This study investigated the efficiency of the TiO2/UV nano-photocatalytic process in removing humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA) from aqueous solutions. Batch tests were performed to investigate the effect of various parameters such as contact time (15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 minutes), initial pH (4, 7, and 9), initial HA and FA concentration (0.5, 1, 2, 5, and 7 mg/L-1), TiO2 dose (5, 10, 15 and 20 mg/L-1), and different UV irradiation (8 W and 16 W) for the removal of HA and FA from aqueous solutions using TiO2/UV at room temperature (20 ± 3 °C). The equilibrium adsorption data and the standard parameters were evaluated. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Results: The efficiency of this process in optimal conditions (pH: 4, anatase TiO2: 10 mg/L-1, irradiation time: 60 min, UV = 16 W) for removing humic and fulvic (initial HA concentration: 2 mg/L-1 and initial FA concentration: 5 mg/L-1) was 89% and 92%, respectively. The analysis of the experimental isotherm data showed that in the adsorption process of HA and FA on TiO2/UV, the Langmuir isotherm and the first-order reaction had the best fit with the experimental data. Conclusion: TiO2/UV nano-photocatalytic process is suitable for the photo-degradation and removal of HA and FA in aqueous solutions.

401-408

Authors: Desmond Eseoghene Ighravwe, Akpevweoghene Solomon Abijah, Daniel Osezua Aikhuele, Sunday Thomas Ajayi, Johnson Adeleke Adeyiga

Background: Several aquaculture industries in underdeveloped nations use fossil fuel-powered generators to produce electricity. This pattern has raised greenhouse gas emissions as well as the price of aquaculture products. Methods: To address this issue, this study contains a bi-objective model that optimizes the parametric settings of waste-to-energy (WTE) plants for aquaculture firms: Levelized cost of energy and power expenses for reverse logistics. The best values for these objectives were created using a genetic algorithm and goal programming. Results: Four planning periods were taken into account during implementation, and actual data were gathered from a Nigerian aquaculture company. The electricity costs from biodiesel ranged from N0.7541 per kW to N0.7628 per kW, respectively. Reverse logistics has energy costs ranging from N6 329 492.10 to N7 121 015.53. The proposed model produced average values for several WTE parametric parameters, including a 1.69 million kg hydrogen gas, a 59.16% hydrogen gas compression efficiency, and an 83.39% electricity conversion efficiency. Furthermore, the system had logistics’ minimum and maximum fractions of 0.18% and 21%, respectively. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrated how WTE parametric parameters impact the aquaculture industry’s electrical power unit.

419-428

Authors: Parisa Nasrollahi, Seyyed Abbas Mirzaee, Zeinab Gholami, Mohsen Mansouri, Zahra Noorimotlagh

Background: The widespread presence of organic dyes in the various industries’ effluent such as paper, textile, and clothing has led to significant environmental pollution. Titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles immobilized on zeolite (ZSM-5) were investigated under UV light for activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for photocatalytic degradation of Orange II (OII) dye in aqueous solutions. Methods: In this study, the photocatalyst used was prepared by immobilizing different amounts of TiO2 nanoparticles on ZSM-5. Characterization analyses including X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), BET, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were performed on the synthesized samples. Then, the effect of various parameters, such as TiO2 nanoparticles loading onto the ZSM-5, pH, contact time, dye concentration, and TiO2/ ZSM-5 dosage, is investigated for the removal of OII as a model molecule under the UV irradiation with 15 W power. Results: The highest removal percentage of OII dye (97.44%) was obtained in the optimal operating conditions of pH = 3, the initial dye concentration = 5 ppm, amount of TiO2/ZSM-5 = 10 mg/L, amount of PMS = 50 mg/L, and reaction time = 120 minutes. The Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetics model fitted with the experimental data. Conclusion: The obtained results of this research showed that PMS can be used as a suitable oxidant activated with ZSM-5/TiO2 nanocomposite in OII degradation in different water environments, by optimizing the effective operating factors.

441-449

Authors: Hassan Hashemi, Nasim Salehi, Saeed Rajabi, Kaan Isinkaralar

Background: Leachate, a highly contaminated liquid, is produced by separating wastes and introducing moisture into the waste layers. Biological toxicity evaluation is a method that may be used to analyze the toxicity of leachate to organisms and plants. Sorghum bicolor was employed in this study to evaluate the acute toxicity of raw leachate and landfill leachate. Methods: Leachate was collected from different locations within the refuse that was collected and mixed in a sampling container. The physiochemical characteristics of the leachate were analyzed in both raw leachate and landfill leachate. Germination rate, root weight, and root length were measured 24, 48, and 72 hours after planting for leachate dilutions of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, respectively. Results: Raw leachate had greater concentrations of metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cr, Cd, and Pb), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate, as well as a more acidic pH (< 6), as compared to landfill leachate. The results showed that landfill leachate had a lower potential for toxicity than raw leachate, with seed-germination rates of 0.1 and 0 in the presence of 75% landfill leachate after 48 and 72 hours, respectively, as opposed to 0.3 and 0.1 in the presence of raw leachate. Conclusion: The findings show that raw leachate can include higher concentrations of metals and organic compounds, which can be one of the causes of Sorghum seed phytotoxicity. Waste leachate management is one of the most important pillars of environmental protection, and it should be taken into consideration by the right authorities.

459-467

Authors: Francis Acheampong Osei, Esther Asantewaa Effah

Background: Many countries undertake development activities that utilize resources from the environment. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Congolese Environmental Agency is supervised by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development to undertake an environmental assessment of all projects that pose risks to the environment. The present study conducted a critical review of the country’s existing environmental assessment legislation, identifying strengths and weaknesses in the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) system. Methods: A literature survey was done in the Google Scholar, Taylor & Francis, and Elsevier databases, which were also guided by the PRISMA. All full-text articles included in the study were written or translated (using online translation software) into the English language, and also, reported on environmental impact assessment as well as legislation. A textual examination of the included literature was done. A set of adapted analytical criteria was used to critically review the ESIA system in the DRC. The results were discussed, and recommendations were given. Results: It was found that the decree was not effective and efficient for the ESIA study. Some of the key limitations of the ESIA decree included the lack of scoping in the entire ESIA process, alternatives that were limited in scope, fees and charges that were not explicitly stated in the legislation, and the lack of public participation at some stages. Conclusion: The ESIA system in the DRC is ineffective and needs revision to improve its effectiveness.

185–193

Authors: Abbas Jafarizad, Mohammad Rostamizadeh*, Mahmoud Zarei3, Soorena Gharibian

Background: Mitoxantrone (MXT) is a drug for cancer therapy and a hazardous pharmaceutical to the environment which must be removed from contaminated waste streams. In this work, the removal of MXT by the electro-Fenton process over heterogeneous and homogenous catalysts is reported. Methods: The effects of the operational conditions (reaction medium pH, catalyst concentration and utilized current intensity) were studied. The applied electrodes were carbon cloth (CC) without any processing (homogenous process), graphene oxide (GO) coated carbon cloth (GO/CC) (homogenous process) and Fe3O4@GO nanocomposite coated carbon cloth (Fe3O4@GO/CC) (heterogeneous process). The characteristic properties of the electrodes were determined by atomic force microscopy (AFM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and cathode polarization. MXT concentrations were determined by using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer. Results: In a homogenous reaction, the high concentration of Fe catalyst (>0.2 mM) decreased the MXT degradation rate. The results showed that the Fe3O4@GO/CC electrode included the most contact surface. The optimum operational conditions were pH 3.0 and current intensity of 450 mA which resulted in the highest removal efficiency (96.9%) over Fe3O4@GO/CC electrode in the heterogeneous process compared with the other two electrodes in a homogenous process. The kinetics of the MXT degradation was obtained as a pseudo-first order reaction. Conclusion: The results confirmed the high potential of the developed method to purify contaminated wastewaters by MXT.

203–207

Authors: Zahra Heidari, Mohsen Motevasel, Nematollah Jaafarzadeh*

Background: This research studied the effect of UV light on pentachlorophenol (PCP) removal in the electro-Fenton (EF) process. Methods: PCP was used as the pollutant in this study. The effects of Fenton’s reagent, i.e. hydrogen peroxide concentration, solution pH, and treatment time by EF (EF) and photoelectro-Fenton (PEF) processes, were studied to determine rates of PCP removal. The results showed that a better performance and a high removal efficiency were achieved by coupling UV radiation and the EF process. Results: EF processes required more time to remove PCP, while after a reaction time of 10 minutes, the PEF achieved a removal efficiency of 90.4%; this value is higher than the maximum efficiency of the EF process (83.44% after 40 minutes). The kinetic mechanisms of both processes were examined and compared. The rate constants at optimum conditions were 0.0455 and 0.0579 min−1 for EF and PEF processes, respectively. Conclusion: Removal efficiency was obtained in the order of PEF > EF.

217–224

Authors: Mohammad Malakootian*, Marzie Javdan, Farnaz Iranmanesh

Background: Fluoride plays an important role in bone and dentin mineralization; however, excess fluoride intake is harmful to mankind. Methods: This study evaluated the performance of bauxite from active Iranian mines in removing fluoride from drinking water. The effects of pH, contact time, adsorbent dose, and fluoride concentration on defluoridation and removal efficiency were determined. Kinetics and adsorption isotherms were studied. Fluoride levels were measured using SPADNS. Data analysis was performed using SPSS16. Results: Bauxite from the Jajarm mine had the lowest adsorbency (20 g/L) and required the shortest contact time (90 minutes) to reach equilibrium compared with the ore from bauxite mines evaluated in another study which had greater efficiency rates in removing fluoride from drinking water (58.15%). The fluoride removal efficiency rates of the other bauxite mines were as follows: Mendon > Sadrabad > Khidabas > Khezri > Shahbalaghi > Tash > Biglar. Bauxite from Shomal-e Yazd, Hasanabad, and Shahid Nilchian mines could not achieve the required efficiency to remove fluoride from drinking water without initial preparation and modification. The removal efficiency rates of actual samples were much lower than the synthetic samples because of confounding factors. Conclusion: As a result of the low cost and abundant availability of bauxite and the fact that its use does not require a particular expertise or sophisticated technology, the removal efficiency of this adsorbent can be increased to desirable levels through the use of corrective methods such as heating, acidifying, particle crushing, or the mixing of two or more removal systems.

233–237

Authors: Zabihollah Yousefi, Hossein Sahebian*

Background: This study evaluated the quality of drinking water in rural areas of the city of Babol in terms of chemical parameters (iron, manganese, nitrite, and nitrate) and compared it with the Iranian and the World Health Organization (WHO) standards to determine the trend. Methods: This cross-sectional study monitored chemical test results for the years 2011-2014 of samples collected from rural water and wastewater from Babol Company. A total of 375 samples from 71 drinking water wells were investigated. Results: Results for the maximum, mean, and minimum levels of each parameter across rural sectors over 4 years were compared and analyzed against Iranian and the WHO standards. The results showed that during the four years of monitoring, the average iron concentration in Laleh Abad (0.5 ± 0.06 mg/L), Gatab (0.398 ± 0.42 mg/L), and Central (0.307 ± 0.23 mg/L) exceeded the standard concentration. Overall, the average concentrations of iron, manganese, nitrite, and nitrate in all areas during the years 2011-2014 were 0.239 ± 0.15 mg/L, 0.132 ± 0.95 mg/L, 0.008 ± 0.012 mg/L, and 2.201 ± 0.73 mg/L, respectively. Conclusion: In general, statistical analyses showed that the average concentrations of nitrite and nitrate were below the allowable limit, which is desirable. The mean concentrations of iron and manganese (Mn+2) in the water of some areas of the county during this period were higher than the allowed limit. This is an adverse finding that may be attributable to the improper locations of the water wells.

131-136

Authors: Mohammad Rafiee, Mahsa Jahangiri Rad, Arash Afshari

Background: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which consist of fused conjugated aromatic rings, not only are toxic to humans and other living organisms, but will also pollute groundwater. These compounds can be point source or non-point source and are one of the most widespread organic pollutants. Some of them are suspected carcinogens and are linked to other health problems. This study was carried out to assess the petroleum hydrocarbon phytoremediation potential of the Aeluropus littoralis species. Accumulation of PAHs in roots and upper parts of A. littoralis has been determined. Translocation factor (TF) was also calculated. Methods: In this study, soil samples were taken from the vicinity of Isfahan oil refinery, and the PAHs compounds were analyzed with gas chromatography. One-meter soil columns were prepared from the control and contaminated soil. Unplanted A. littoralis treatments were also prepared to eliminate the effects of environmental factors on the reduction of oil-based contaminants. Seventeen weeks after planting, soil columns were sampled at 25, 50, 75, and 100 cm depths, and the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons and number of oil-degrading bacteria were counted. Moreover, the roots and shoots of A. littoralis were separated and weighed. Results: Results indicated that A. littoralis reduced the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons to a significantly higher extent than the control treatment. Increasing depth was associated with improved petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations and decreased number of oil-degrading bacteria. Mostly, the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of PAHs was <1, which shows A. littoralis could be an excluder of PAHs. The results also showed that the TF of PAHs was less than one, and hence, A. littoralis could be considered as an accumulator of PAHs. Conclusion: It can be concluded that this species is suitable for use in the phytoremediation of PAHS contamination. For further confirmation, an evaluation under field conditions should be undertaken.

143-148

Authors: Ahmad Reza Yazdanbakhsh, Mohammad Hasan Abasi, Zeinab Gholami, Moayed Avazpour

Background: The presence of heavy metals in water resources above threshold levels can be toxic and carcinogenic for consumers. This study determined the concentrations of heavy metals in the drinking water distribution network and resources of the city of Ilam in Iran. Methods: In this cross-sectional study from 6 sources of water supply and also, different parts of the water supply system of Ilam city, samples were collected based on standard sampling methods. The samples were tested with a BRAIC atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The data was analyzed using nonparametric Mann-Whitney test. Results: The concentration of zinc in all water sources of the city of Ilam was higher than WHO guidelines and Iranian standard 1053. Contamination by cobalt, arsenic and lead from Ilam dam, Pich-e Ashoori well and Haft Cheshmeh well was higher than national and international standards. The amount of cobalt and mercury at Ilam dam was significantly different from the levels at other sources (P < 0.05). Conclusion: The use of pesticides in the agricultural sector, contamination of water by human waste and aged and worn water pipes are the likely sources of the increased concentrations of heavy metals, especially lead and arsenic. Because there is a cumulative effect from these metals, appropriate measures are necessary by the relevant agencies to address this problem.

157-162

Authors: Samad Gholami Yengejeh, Hossein Jafari Mansoorian, Gharib Majidi, Ahmad Reza Yari , Narges Khanjani

Background: The reuse of treated municipal wastewater is an important source of water for different ,purposes. This study evaluated the efficiency of the electrocoagulation process in removing turbidity,a total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrate, and phosphate from wastewater at the treatment facility in Karaj, Iran. Methods: This experimental study was performed at a pilot scale and in a batch system. A 4-liter tank made from safety glass with 4 plate electrodes made from aluminum was unipolarly connected to a direct current power supply with a parallel arrangement. Wastewater samples were taken from the influent at the Karaj wastewater treatment facility. Rates of turbidity, TSS, COD, nitrate, and phosphate removal under different conditions were determined. Results: The highest efficiency of COD, TSS, nitrate, turbidity, and phosphate elimination was achieved at a voltage of 30 volts and a reaction time of 30 minutes. The rates were 88.43%, 87.39%, 100%, 80.52%, and 82.69%, respectively. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, electrocoagulation is an appropriate method for use in removing nitrate, phosphate, COD, turbidity, and TSS from wastewater.

169–175

Authors: Dipankar Ghosh, Jayanta Kumar Biswas

Background: Oxbow lakes are abundant in indigenous fishes, but they are subject to unsustainable fishing practices, potential overexploitation, and indiscriminate use of fine-meshed fishing gear. To quantify the catch per unit effort (CPUE) and impact of fishing gears on fish abundance, a survey was carried out in an oxbow lake in eastern India. Methods: The gear-wise CPUE for fish caught in per unit hour of operation was calculated by dividing the total sampling gear catch in biomass, which is the observed value of fish caught by a particular gear, by the total sampling effort hours. A value of P < 0.05 was accepted as statistical significance. Results: Average annual values of the CPUE of triangular push nets, gill nets, long lines, seine nets, drag nets, stationary dip nets, cone-framed cast nets, and line and hook were calculated as 328.34, 4.12, 36.71, 572.92, 3928.57, 237.78, 235.80, and 0.44 grams of fish per hour of operation, respectively. All the 8 different gears exhibited lower CPUE during monsoon and post-monsoon seasons than in the premonsoon season. The line and hook was dominant (>71%). Cone-framed cast net hauled the maximum catch in biomass (31.51%), and gill nets contributed the maximum number of fish (64.92%). The lower CPUE values of line and hook, gill net, cone-framed cast net and long lines identified them as the most harmful among all gears. Conclusion: Indiscriminate use of gear, particularly line and hook, gill nets, cone-framed cast nets, and long lines, demands regulations and preventions concerning such gear to obtain higher fish abundance.