Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

724–733

Authors: Pochekaev R.Yu.

Research objective of the article is clarifying of the nature of the Great Yasa of Chinggis Khan: was it legal code or set of specific edicts, regulations and principles? Research materials include Arabian and Persian historical sources which already were used by another researchers of the Great Yasa (D. Ayalon, D.O. Morgan), as well as new sources on the history of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde, Yuan Empire, Chaghataid state recently introduced into scholarly circulation. Research results of the article consist in getting of arguments that the Great Yasa, in fact, was a set of specific principles and rules established by Chinggis Khan, and their observance provided a harmony in the Mongol Empire and the states of Chinggisids, i.e. the Great Yasa was a kind of “law and order” but not a legal code. Research novelty of the article is represented by analysis of the level of the legal development of the Mongols of the 13th–14th cc. when they didn’t need a special codification to regulate their legal relations, that’s why no one authentic source mentioned the Great Yasa as code of laws and it is characterized in this way only by representatives of the “written legal culture” (European, Caucasus, Arabian, etc.).

767–778

Authors: Zaynuddinov D.R.

Publication and translation into Russian of extracts of sources on the Golden Horde history remains topical issue of contemporary source studies. Research objective: To introduce into academic circulation materials on the Golden Horde history from a previously unknown medieval Arab source. Research materials: Biographical Collection A'yan al-'Asrwa-A'wan al-Nasr (Outstanding personalities of this century, and the champions of victory) belonging to the pen of the Mamluk historian al-Safadi, Salah al-Din (696 AH / 1297 – 764 GH./1363). Results and novelty of the research: The work was written by the author in Egypt and Syria in the second half of the 14th century, that is, during the heyday of the Golden Horde. It was first published in 1998 in Beirut in six volumes, the latter being composed of indexes. The amount of volume ranges from 685 (Volume 4) to 736 (Vol.1) pages, which makes a total of 3578 pages (without indexes). The novelty of the paper consists in the fact that it introduces for the first time into scholarly circulation Russian translation of biographies of the Golden Horde khans Tokhta and Uzbek, of the Mamluk physician al-Numan, of amir Kusun and Sultan al-Nasir. The article also contains an analysis of the collection as well as translation of certain sections of the work related to the history of Dasht-i Kipchak, together with brief comments. In conclusion, I would like to note that the introduction into the scholarly circulation of Salah al-Din al-Safadi’s biographical collection A'yan al-'Asrwa-A'wan al-Nasr will provide a lot of useful information and help to clarify the available data on the history of the Golden Horde.

784–789

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M.

The article is devoted to Bek Bulat – one of the characters in the Golden Horde history of the end of the 14th century and one of the first traitors during the confrontation between khan Tokhtamysh and Aksak Timur. During this period, the Golden Horde again faced political instability. Bek Bulat was the first and foremost among the contenders to the central power. His figure is interesting because at the beginning of his career, he was one of Toktamysh’s military commanders and his relative, but later he betrayed his suzerain. His story helps us to understand Edigu and his supporters. For if Bek Bulat would not be destroyed in 1392, possibly it would have been he who would have become the arbiter of fate in the early 15th century. Tensions between Tokhtamysh’s supporters and opponents were profound. Tokhtamysh proclaimed the revival of the Golden Horde of the times of khans Uzbek and Janibek, but his adversaries opposed Tokhtamysh’s policy aimed at centralizing power. They wished to maintain influence of clans in order to prevent beklyaribek and vizier’s power to become declarative. To accomplish their goals Tokhtamysh’s adversaries tried to use his confrontation with Timur and came into contact with the latter. They betrayed Toktamysh during the decisive battle on Kondurcha in 1391, and later he executed them for this treachery.

803–813

Authors: Abduzhemilev R.R.

Objective and materials of the research: In the article the matter for consideration is the problem of the lingual basis in yarlyks of the Crimean Khanate. The author seeks to trace the process of the formation of the state language of the Crimean Khanate on the material of the official letters and decrees. The main statements characterizing the object of the study are formulated. The article presents the views of the famous orientalists, in which the structure of the yarlyk’s language is reflected. An important attention is focused on the ration of the Kipchak and Oghuz elements. The period from the 13th century to the 16th century is marked by the development of the language called «desht tili», i.e. the language of Desht-i Kipchak. Results and novelty of the research: The author emphasizes that the language of the yarlyks of the Crimean Khanate is a heritage of the literary language of the Jochid ulus (Golden Horde), and even earlier one – of Desht-i Kipchak. Kipchaks dominated the extremely vast territory. The Kipchak language for a long time was used in the correspondence between Bakhchisaray and Moscow. As for the correspondence between Bakhchisaray and Istanbul, instead of Kipchak there was used Ottoman language. The correspondence between Crimea and Poland was mixed: both Kipchak and Ottoman languages were in use. Concerning the lexical structure of yarlyks, there are many Arabic and Persian words and forms which became inseparable part of the Crimean Tatar language. While the texts of the early yarlyks are full mostly of Turkic words, then in the late yarlyks Arabic and Persian words in some cases displaced original Turkic words. Therefore, today the issue of the reconstruction of the Turkic basis is of high importance. The language of the official correspondence from the Crimean Khanate’s Office is one of the indicators of the development of integral state formation on the map of the Eastern Europe. On the one hand, the language of yarlyks had taken its roots deep from the centuries and ancient times, and on the other hand, it had been transformed over time into modern Crimean Tatar language. Texts of the correspondence of the Khanate period have considerable philological potential, as evidenced by the wide range of the now disused linguistic units.

832–860

Authors: Khrapunov N.I.

Research objective: This article addresses the accounts on Staryi Krym, a town in the Crimean Peninsula, supplied by travelogues written after the joining of the region to Russia. Research materials: Modern archaeologists can use these textual and visual accounts as a source of information on the condition of Moslem monuments, which were later damaged by anthropogenic and natural factors, and science historians can draw conclusions on the features of discovering and interpretation of Moslem history and “Oriental” architecture in the period of the Enlightenment. The travelogues developed a multi-dimensional image of Staryi Krym. Abandoned and collapsing Moslem town, a living illustration from the outgoing age, with still standing ancient mosques, baths, fortifications, and graves, got virtual connections with classic past of the Crimea, finding itself to be a “heir” of one or another settlement documented by Greco-Roman geographers. Research results and novelty: Through the travellers’ eyes, Staryi Krym, by images of the Cimmerians and the Cimbrians, got a key role in the history of Crimean Peninsula, and even supplied it with the name of Crimea, which connected the “noble barbarians” of antiquity with the “modern Celts” – the French and the Scots, and the Past of Europe with its Present. Staryi Krym became a component of literary discourse, allowing the classics of the Sentimentalism to think of the frailty of earthly life. This town also became a subject of painting, which made it a part of romantic appearance of Taurica.

868–880

Authors: Khamidova Ch.I.

Research objectives and materials: The article presents part of the translation of the 2nd chapter of the manuscript. This part contains a genealogical tree of Jochi Khan (his descendants known to Rashid al-din). The footnotes present the Arabic writing of the names in the manuscript. The results of translation and analyses of the text of the manuscript could serve to various purposes: study of Rashid al-din’s heritage, Golden Horde history, genealogical history of Jochi Khan and his descendants. The translation of the manuscript has never been published neither partly nor fully. Research results and novelty: The genealogy of Jochi Khan’s ancestors in “Shu’ab-i panjganah” mainly repeats the information from Jami 'al-Tawarikh, although additional data is also available. The genealogy of the descendants of Jochi in “Shu’ab-i panjganah” contains fifteen of his sons. In fact, there are 10 genealogical lines, since five of them did not have any offspring, or they are not known (these are the lines of Berke, Kukadzhi, Dzhilaraun, Mohammed, Shinkum). Jochi’s genealogy contains some notes regarding the succession to the throne in the Golden Horde: the name of the ruler of the Golden Horde is written in red ink, also sometimes the author notes that one or the other descendant of Jochi took the throne, indicating the order of succession to the throne. These notes offer two variants of succession of rulers; a comparison of the text of “Shu’ab-i panjganah” with the text of Rashid al-din’s main historical writing “Jami 'al-Tawarikh” does not clarify the situation as, for example, Kukadzhi who is presented in one variant of order of succession, is absent in “Jami 'al-Tawarikh”.

894–898

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M., Gibadullin I.R.

We bring to attention of specialists an undated letter of Ottoman ruler Mehmed II Fatih to the Great Horde khan Ahmad from the collection of famous collector of Ottoman charters Feridun-bey. The addressee is the famous ruler of the Great Horde, khan Ahmad. Daulat Khan mentioned in the letter is Nur-Davlet. He was connected with khan Ahmad, and, as indicated by the letter, he had also set in close contact with the Ottomans whose ruler openly declares in a letter that “our sight of benevolence and patronage is directed toward him”. Thereby the Sultan made it clear to the “principal” Tatar khan Akhmad that Nur-Davlet was under the patronage of the Ottoman Empire. Considering the period of activity of Nur-Davlet in Crimea, presumably the letter was written in 1477. Famous researcher of the Crimean Khanate V.D. Smirnov had already examined the letter and the question of why Ahmad Khan was named the Crimean khan in the title of the letter.

907–910

Authors: Sayfetdinova E.G.

A collective monograph “History of the Tatars of the Western Cisuralic Region. Vol. I. The Nomads of the Great Steppe in the Cisuralic Region. Medieval Tatar States” has been published by Sh.Marjani Institute of History (Kazan, 2016). The volume is dedicated to the medieval period and ends with the fall of the Kazan Khanate. The monograph has been prepared under the supervision of Doctor of Historical Studies, R.S. Khakimov. Editorial board of the monograph consists of leading scholars from academic centers in Russia and abroad. The book is divided into 4 chapters. The first chapter talks about the history of ancient nomads in the Cisuralic region. The second chapter examines the Volga-Kama Bulgaria and political unification of the Turkic nomads. The third chapter is dedicated to the formation of the Golden Horde state and the history of the formation of the Tatar people. The final fourth chapter discusses the Tatar khanates (Kazan and Siberian yurts, the Nogai Horde). An appendix including 55 narrative source is an important part of the collective monograph “History of the Tatars of the Cisuralic Region”. The authors of the first volume have not only succeeded to considerably fill the lacuna of historical knowledge about the Cisuralic Tatars, but also largely revise existing ideas about ethnogenesis of other Turko-Tatar and Finno-Ugric peoples in the region. This work does not provide all the answers. However, the important thing is that the authors of the monograph have succeeded to present new problems and outline prospects for further research. In the future, it is necessary to continue to study the process of ethnic migrations, which began in the Cisuralic region in the middle of the 16th century as well as the problems linked to the inclusion of these communities into the Russian state and other issues related to the history of the Cisuralic Tatars.

915–917

Authors: Aksanov A.V

This book describes the history and current state of the Kazan-Tatar Turkological school. Its author analyzes the development of global and domestic Turkology, points out interrelations between various academic centers and specifies the convention of their separation. According to him, the Tatars played a significant role in the development of the Russian Oriental studies, since already from the 18th century, they collaborated with leading Russian Orientalists. The establishment of the University of Kazan in 1804 was a milestone in the development of Kazan School of Turkic Studies. The 1820–50s were a time of the highest development of Oriental studies in the University of Kazan. In addition to personnel training, the University created textbooks, dictionaries, scholarly works, collected manuscripts and established extensive international contacts. Soviet and modern periods were mainly related to the development of the historical and philological direction within the walls of educational institutions and the University of Kazan. In 2011, their Tatar faculties were united into the Institute of Philology and Arts of Kazan Federal University. Formation and development of the history of Tatar literature as an independent branch of literary science became one of the most important achievements of this stage. Great work on the collection, publication and study of Tatar folklore done in the last century was another important achievement.

924–927

Authors: Gibatdinov M.M.

This article present a short report on the International round table “Tatar materials in Polish archives” organized in Warsaw on March 31 – April 1, 2016. Round table was a result of international scientific cooperation between Marjani Institute of History, Polish Academy of Sciences, University of Warsaw, Institute for Caucasian-, Tatar- and Turkestan Studies (ICATAT). It was a part of the long-term research project “Tatar Materials in Foreign Archives” carried out by the Marjani Institute of History in the framework of State Program of the Republic of Tatarstan “Preserving of Tatar Ethnical Identity (for years 2014–2016).” The following papers was presented on the round table: “On results of recent researches of Tatar materials in Polish archives” by Prof., Dr. Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, Director of the Institute of History, University of Warsaw; “The New Records of Old Heritage – Documents about Tatars from Regional and Private Archives in Polish-German Context”, by Dr. Mieste Hottop-Riecke, Director of ICATAT and Dr. Stephan Theilig, Director of Brandenburg-Preußen Museum Wustrau; “Maniere de Faire la Guerre des Tartares’ as Hybrid War in the Military Art of Crimean and Dobruja Tatars in the Early modern Time”, by Dr. Andrzej Gliwa, University of Warsaw, Department of History, Faculty Member; “Tatar Documents in Archives and Museums in Bialystok” by Dr. Artur Konopacki, Assistant Professor in Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Bialystok; ”The first results of international research project ”Yazma Miras – Written Heritage” by Marat Gibatdinov. Participants of round table discussed a possible prospects for future cooperation in the field of researching and digitalizing of Tatar materials from Polish archives. During the conference the meetings with the representatives of Tatar community in Poland and Lithuania was organized, as well as the study visits to the Tatar Mosque and Tatar cemetery in Warsaw. With the help of Dr. Kołodziejczyk and Dr. Hubert Wajs, Head of Central Archives of Historical Records (Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych – AGAD) special exhibition of Tatar materials was organized in AGAD exclusively for the round table participants. It contained a number of unique documents about history of Kazan and Crimean Khanates, history of Tatar-Polish diplomatic relationships. According of the calculation of Polish colleagues, only AGAD have around 700 different documents about Tatar history, still waiting for researching and publishing.

485–528

Authors: Hautala R.

Research objective: The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241. Research materials: For the most part, the author’s analysis is based on information of synchronous Latin sources in comparison with information contained in Russian and Mamluk chronicles. In addition to the Hungarian, Polish, and German chronicles, the author resorts to the use of the contents of the papal letters to Eastern Europe, which provide both the most reliable information about military conflicts and information on the Papal Curia’s measures to improve the defense of eastern borders of the Latin world from the Tatar raids. Research results and novelty: During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan Mengu-Timur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe. However, the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga. Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of khan Uzbek was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.

534–551

Authors: Zayonchkovskiy Yu.V.

The Golden Horde khan Bek-Bulat’s reign is still representing the subject of debate despite both the fact that the name of this Jochid often occurs in the pages of historical and numismatic researches and the existence of separate research articles devoted to him and his coins. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the political career of Bek-Bulat according to written and numismatic sources. Its objective is to reasonably present the chronology of his reign (including consideration of the issue of his “first” reign). Materials and methodology of the present study. The article contains high-quality enlarged images of the dangs of this khan with metrology (most of these images have been introduced into the academic circulation for the first time). The author uses these images as sources for reconstruction (or reconstruction’s verification) of historical events and identifies the main types of Bek-Pulad’s silver coins including a previously unknown type of this khan’s dangs with a designation of minting place in Saray al-Jadid. The author analyzes the type of Azak mint’s dangs with spelling of the khan’s name as “Bulad”. He reads their date as 793 AH and dates this emission back to the beginning of Bek-Bulat’s reign. Results of the study. Oglan Bek-Bulat commanded the Tokhtamish’s troops in 1386 and 1391. After the defeat of the Golden Horde army in the Battle of the Kondurcha River, in summer 1391 Bek-Bulat was proclaimed a khan. The ensuing war between Tokhtamish and Bek-Bulat lasted quite a long time and ended with the death of the latter in the Crimea. Conclusions. The author dates the reign of Bek-Pulad back to 793–794 AH (approximately the middle of 1391 – mid–1392 AD). Other dates indicated by scholars are based on the incorrect use of numismatic material. The question of the “first” reign of Bek-Bulat still remains open.

570–579

Authors: Ivanics M.

The Turkic peoples of the Volga Region lost their statehood for centuries due to the Russian occupation of the Khanate of Kazan and Astrakhan in the mid–16th century. The memory of statehood among these peoples has been maintained and preserved for posterity through the oral historiography of the steppe. It comes as no surprise then that there has been an effort to create and strengthen the national identities in the post-Soviet Turkic republics with the successive publication of the latest editions of national epics and collections of historical stories. Research objectives and materials: This investigation focuses on one such source that forms part of the oral historiography of the steppe, a Genghis-name compiled and recorded by an unknown author in the late 17th century. The chapter on Genghis Khan contains two stories that depict the various forms of organisational practices in nomadic states. The first was characteristic of the Golden Horde and the Nogai Horde at its zenith; it concerns the joint rule of the khan and the beglerbeg. The second depicts relations in the late Golden Horde and its successor states, in which the khan and the four chieftains constituted and led the country together. In the Genghis-name we could set the type of a super complex chiefdom headed by Temir Kutlu Khan with his four karači biy’s of the clans Kiyat, Kongrat, Cathay, Saldzhut. Research results and novelty: It was possible to give an answer to the question why are so different the karači biy’s of the Great Horde of those in the other late Golden Horde states. A historian can glean information from this story both on the age in which the source was created and on practices of nomadic rule: What stands out above all is that the clans had the right to resist and that they were able to shift away from their tyrannical rulers without any consequences and seek a new ruler for themselves. The steppe lacked the power of law that would have enabled the ruler to use force in such cases. The khan was only able to maintain his power over the chieftains through his generous gifts or by ensuring regular opportunities for booty. The khan came to be the leader of the society through the support of the chieftains but had no absolute power over them.

602–615

Authors: Rustemov O.D

The first mention of the Crimean court registries – sijils – belong to the 1800s. At that time, translations of some texts were made, the content of these monuments was relatively minutely described and their historical and philological significance was evaluated. However, separate volumes of presented documents still have not been published. Neither comprehensive linguistic study nor description of terminology and style of these texts have not been made. Research objectives: study of the Crimean court registries of the 17th–18th centuries. One of the problems lying on the surface of this field of study of the Crimean Tatar language history and the right is the question about the compilers of these judicial materials. Whom we can consider the author or scribe of a court registry? How competent is an assertion that these books are kadiaskers books? Research materials: the court registries, kadylyk, kadiasker defters. The paper also raised the question of authenticity of the Crimean law and the two sources of the entire justice system of this Eastern European Turkic state: Sharia and actual Turkic law – Töre implemented subsequently in various legislative compilations, such as the Yasa of Chinggis Khan. Another issue of research of these monuments is the question of their content. Fedor Lashkov identified the Crimean records of Sharia courts as a sort of land records’ acts. Research results and novelty: As a result of a detailed study, the author found that its own jurisdiction and its own laws, which did not always coincide with the laws of the Ottoman Empire, functioned in the Crimean Khanate. Despite their historical and philological value as well as more than a century of study, Crimean court registries still contain many blank spots. This again points to the need for their early reading, translation into modern Turkish language and publication, which should be carried out in the Crimean Tatar and Russian languages.

626–647

Authors: Vinogradov A.V.

Research objectives: to outline the key issues of the current state of publication of diplomatic documents containing information about the Crimean Khanate’s relations with Russian and Polish-Lithuanian states during the period of 1515–1596. Research materials: the Crimean diplomatic documents and letters of the Crimean khans Muhammad Giray I, Saadet Giray, Islam Giray I, Sahib Giray, Devlet Giray I, Mohammed Giray II, Islam Giray II and Gazi Giray II to the Moscow princes and Polish kings preserved in the archives and library manuscript collections in Russia and Poland. Research results: as a result of research the author has introduced into scholarly circulation a generic list of (both published and unpublished) messages of the Crimean khans to the Polish kings and princes of Moscow for the period of 1515–1596 preserved in the archives and library manuscript collections in Russia and Poland. Research novelty: the author is the first to consider the problem of the publication of diplomatic documents of the Crimean Khanate being a part of the Crimean ambassadorial books in the fund 123 (“Russian relations with the Crimea”) of Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts.

668–680

Authors: Khamidova Ch.I.

Research objectives and materials: The “Shu’ab-i panjganah” is a Persian manuscript of Rashid al-Din’s works – the medieval historian who lived in Persia and worked at the Ilkhanid court at the end of the 13th – beginning of the 14th centuries. The manuscript is a largely genealogical work written on the basis of a more comprehensive historical work of Rashid al-Din – “Jami al-Tawarikh”. “Shu’ab-i panjganah” contains genealogies of the prophets of Abrahamic religions, the rulers of the Arab Caliphate until the conquest of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Chinese dynasties and rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, as well as a list of the Popes. The greatest interest for this study is spurred by the fifth part, dedicated to the Chinggisids. The article presents a part of the translation of the 2nd chapter of the manuscript. This part contains a genealogical tree of Chinggis Khan (from his ancestor Dubun bayan, but without his descendants). The results of translation and analyses of the text of the manuscript could serve to various purposes: study of Rashid al-Din’s heritage, Great Horde history, genealogical history of Chinggis Khan and his descendants. The translation of the manuscript has never been published neither partly nor fully. Research results and novelty: The genealogy of Chinggis Khan’s ancestors contained in “Shu’ab-i panjganah” mainly repeats the information from “Jami al-Tawarikh”, although additional data is also available. Comparison of “Shu’ab-i panjganah” with brief genealogical tables in “Jami al-Tawarikh” shows that, on the one hand, “Shu’ab-i panjganah” is an addition to “Jami al-Tawarikh”, and on the other hand, the tables in “Jami al-Tawarikh” is a kind of rough version of the genealogical trees contained in “Shu’ab-i panjganah”.

685–687

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

Sh. Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences continues to publish the works of the famous Tatar-Turkish historian Akdes Nigmet Kurat. There has been published the second book “Turkic Tribes and States in the Volga and Northern Black Sea Regions in the 4th–18th centuries”. This work is the result of years of academic study and research by A.N. Kurat. Despite the fact that the book had been published in Turkey in 2002 this Russian edition will be of great help in the studies of modern Russian historians since the book is written with the use of a large number of Eastern and Western sources inaccessible to Russian researchers. The book covers a great period of history since the ancient one where the author tried to reconstruct the history of the Turks before the times of formation and functioning of the post-Horde Tatar khanates. The book consists of 14 chapters and appendixes containing not only the well-known travel notes by Ibn Fadlan, excerpts from Russian chronicles, notes by Ibn Battuta, but also documentary materials of correspondence between the Crimean khans and sultans of the Ottoman Empire. In conclusion, the author also applies the genealogies of dynasties: “khans of Volga Bulgaria”, “Golden Horde khans”, “Kazan khans”, “Crimean khans”, “Astrakhan khans”. It should be noted that A.N. Kurat tried to consider the relatively wide range of issues relating to the history of the Tatar people, which again confirms the need to study the works of this outstanding scholar and historian well-known in the academic works of Turkey and Europe.

256–271

Authors: Cherkas B.V.

History of the Golden Horde towns represents one of the unique and still mysterious pages of history. First of all, this applies to the stationary settlements. Most of these settlements are known due to archaeological research. Consequently, it is difficult to determine, when it refers to the “town” or to the “village”. Chronologically, the Golden Horde settlements can be divided into two groups: those that existed before the Mongol conquest and were incorporated into the empire, and those that were built under the new Tatar government. The Mongol conquests were not aimed at the complete destruction of captured peoples. Like any other state, the Mongol Empire was in need of constant revenue for its existence. Therefore, during an invasion the Mongols destroyed towns guided only by political or military necessity. Accordingly, most of the settlements continued their existence. So actually, as a result of the conquest, the Chinggisid State contained a large number of towns and villages. Compared with settled regions, the steppe never was an urbanized area. But during the Golden Horde period, the steppe was covered with large quantity of human settlements that we call “towns”. There were two reasons for this phenomenon. Firstly, a natural component when life itself forced to build settlements. And secondly, the state policy aimed at establishing permanent settlements. The first reason is based on such elements. It was the presence of a powerful branching Yam (postal) system that contributed to the formation of settlements along postal routes. There a traveler could change horses and rest, get water and food, repair trucks, etc. Thereby, construction of housing facilities for animals, stores, religious buildings, wells, craft workshops on these way stations was a matter of time. Second component was represented by natural environment and climate change. Many rivers flows along the Ukrainian steppe, including such large ones as the Danube, Dniester, Southern Bug, Dnieper, Siverskyi Donets. Accordingly, these rivers could be crossed in certain places only. That, in turn, made it necessary for the existence of settlements there. Also, deep snow in the Ukrainian steppe significantly impedes grazing, and during some winters it generally makes it impossible. This fact forced the nomads to establish stationary settlements and corresponding feed stocks. In the 14th century began a large-scale climatic cooling. This required from the steppe inhabitants as well to create safe shelters for a period of frost. Second reason based on the management policy established by Chinggis Khan. He was first to found a city that became the center of authority. Threads of control across the state went out from them. Accordingly, the nobles followed the ruler’s example and established the regional centers of power as well.

314–335

Authors: Khaydarov T.F.

The article deals with the natural-climatic and environmental factors in the history of the Golden Horde. From the very beginning of its existence the Jochid Ulus proved to be very dependent on the environment. Its existence as a major military and political formation and an important element of the global economic system directly depended on recreational potential of the Lower Volga steppe biome in the recovery of the steppe’s original form. This could worsen the ecological situation both because of the active human impact on the ecology of the region, and as a consequence of climate change. Prudent economic policy of the Horde rulers during the favorable natural and climatic period allowed the Jochid ulus to become in the shortest time the center of attraction in the Black Sea-Caspian region. New Horde towns played a major role in this process. They represented mostly the enlarged nomadic camps with few fixed structures. Even after the development of economic and cultural relations along the Silk Road in the late 13th century and the subsequent economic recovery of the ancient urban centers in Central Asia, the Crimean and Bulgar uluses, new Horde towns of the Lower and Middle Volga regions and Western Siberia continued to bear the imprint of the nomadic settlements at a new stage. At the same time, signs of active construction of permanent structures emerged in these towns. Taking into account the urban achievements of eastern countries, these towns gradually became places of attraction for the urban districts and surrounding areas. The sharp level change of the Caspian, Azov and Aral Seas began in 1320. Along with an increase in seismic activity and climate instability, this change became a detonator of the catastrophic consequences for the Golden Horde. The epidemic (“Black Death”), demographic (famine) and political-military (“Great zamyatnya”) factors represented the Rubicon that the Jochid ulus could not cross. At the same time, remaining Golden Horde towns in the Crimean and Bulgar uluses had been able to become the centers of formation of a new political elite of the post-Horde Tatars.

347–359

Authors: Gulevich V.P.

Contemporary researchers consider it as a proven fact that Grand Prince of Moscow Ivan III instigated the attack of the Crimean khan Mengli Giray against Kiev in 1482. Italian documents of 1480s allow us to provide an alternative explanation for these events. After the Ottoman conquest of Caffa in 1475 the Genoeses planned to recover their colony. For this purpose they sent their emissaries to Mengli Giray who were to both examine the situation in Crimea and incite the khan for an uprising in Caffa against Turkish rule. To secure the success of their plan they also planned to persuade the Polish king Casimir Jagiellon to participate in the uprising. Polish ruler approved a plan in words, but did not provide any practical support. This, in turn, prompted Mengli Giray to attack on Kiev. Purpose of the study: to find out the reasons for the Tatar attack against Kiev in 1482. Objective: to establish the circumstances that led to the attack on Kiev in 1482 and the rupture of peaceful relations between Mengli Giray and Casimir IV. Novelty of the study: based on the little-known sources the author for the first time provides an alternative explanation for the rupture of peaceful relations between Mengli Giray and Casimir IV.

369–384

Authors: Moiseev M.V.

The article is devoted to the study of foreign policy of the Nogai Horde as well as to its attempts to join the system of international relations of the Western Desht. The author identified the main geopolitical interests of the Manghyt Yurt. Struggle against the Great Horde was a significant factor in the formation of international relations of the Western Desht. It turned out to be the most important factor that both cemented political alliances in the region and ensured their viability. However, we should point out the possibility of coalition configurations’ changing, bearing in mind that the interests of the Nogai Horde, that is of a new player, were not always taken into account. In 1493, such an attempt was undertaken by Mirza Musa, but since he had encountered resistance, this attempt was unsuccessful. Reliance on the Siberian Yurt played a much larger role for the Nogai claims. Using the Siberian Chinggisids, the Nogais managed to legitimize their claims to the Kazan khanate. Particularly successful were the events in 1496. However, these events had shown the lack of resources of the Nogai Horde to fight with the Russian government and eventually led to the restriction of the Nogai policy interests by the marriage diplomacy. The Nogai-Crimean confrontation and struggle for control over the Volga crossings determined the nature of international relations in the Western Desht and became a major geopolitical factor in the region after the defeat of the Great Horde. However, for the turn of the 15th–16th centuries the Crimean-Nogai confrontation had not yet become irreversible. In this struggle a new challenge faced the Nogais: they had to take hold of the Volga transports and Haji-Tarkhan for effective control over the right bank of the Volga. This logic of events would lead to a new great war in the Western Desht, in which the Nogai Horde was to play a leading role. However the Kazakh invasion dramatically altered the balance of power and changed the vector of international relations, in which the confrontation of the Russian State and the Crimean Khanate began to play a major role. In turn, khan Qasim died in 1521 and the Nogais began to expel the Kazakhs. This led to the fact that the Nogai Horde returned into the vortex of international relations, where the Manghyt Yurt was again forced to find its place.

420–442

Authors: Iskhakov D.M.

In recent years, researchers have begun to pay greater attention to the ethnic aspects of the Great Mongolian State’s formation at the turn of the 12th–13th centuries. However, a key problem of this period still remains controversial. This problem is related to the definition of ethnicity of the Tatar and other kindred clans. This article analyzes the problem in order to achieve a clear understanding of the ethnic situation in Central Asia during the formation of Eke Mongol Ulus. As a result of consideration of historiographical approaches to ethnic nomenclature, which the Mongolian and Chinese sources used with respect to the Turkic and Mongolian groups that settled in this area, the author is inclined to the view of Turkish ethnicity of the Tatars and some other (Naimans, Merkits) clans known by source, whom Chinggis Khan faced in the process of formation of the “people of the Mongols”. At the same time, the author establishes a historical connection between the pre-Mongol Tartars and Kimak and Uyghur khaganates. In particular, he reveals their affiliation to the elite, “royal” layers of these Turkic states. In turn, this allows us to reveal the presence of a Tatar component among the eastern Kipchak-Kimaks (Yemeks) with close ties with the last dynasty of Khwarezm shahs. On the basis of a detailed and comprehensive review of material, the author points to the need for a new understanding of the term “Mongol-Tatars”. This term was not imposed by the Chinese officials, but it was a meaningful politonym marking a two-part (Turkic (Tatar) – Mongol) nature of the “people” who established the Great Mongol Empire. The author informs in his article about his plans to consider in detail this issue in relation to the ulus of Jochi.

450–457

Authors: Pilipchuk Ya.V.

In 2014, the book by B.V. Cherkas was published in Ukraine dedicated to the western uluses of the Golden Horde. All the advantages and disadvantages of this work have been considered in the present review. The reviewer notes that the book allows us to fill in the existing gaps in the history of the Golden Horde. Cherkas revised administrative and territorial structure of the Golden Horde and estimated in a new way foreign policy situation during the khan Uzbek’s epoch. He noted that the beginning of the Golden Horde decline became apparent as early as in the reign of Uzbek. This was due to both natural factors and the offensive of the Europeans against the buffer states, which had been weakened by the Tatar invasion, although they returned to the sphere of the Jochid influence in 1321–1323. Cherkas introduced into historiography a new term – New Western campaign – to designate military operations in 1258–1260 against the Ruthenians, Lithuanians, Poles, Hungarians. He noted that the Mongol commanders preferred to wage war with the forces of their vassals. Based on the analysis of written sources, the researcher established the existence of a large ulus of Kurumyshi and a wing of Muval. Nogai founded his ulus on the territory of Muval’s wing. The ulus of Nogai did not cease to exist with his death: later sons and grandsons of Nogai ruled this ulus as well as one of Batuid and emirs. Centralization of state administration under the khans Uzbek, Janibek and Berdibek was only temporary. Replacing the Chinggisids by emirs was not a panacea for separatism. In addition, the researcher reconstructed the existence of several more uluses on the Dnieper left bank region. These are the ulus of Mankerman in the former principality of Pereyaslavl, the Samara-Orelsky ulus as well as the Crimean ulus. Ulus of Kurumyshi occupied large areas on the right bank of the Dnieper. It was conquered by Europeans in the course of the Hungarian and Lithuanian expansion. Reconstruction of Tokhtamish’s campaign in Podolia and Principality of Kiev in 1380 represents an important achievement of the scholar. Trying to prevent uprisings in the Black Sea uluses, Tokhtamish planted there his relatives and actively used the troops from Muval’s wing during campaigns in Iran and Central Asia. Reviewer’s comments have no fundamental significance and cannot seriously affect the appreciation of the work.

461–463

Authors: Abibullaeva E.E.

From 30 October to 1 November 2015, the Crimean Research Centre of Sh.Marjani Institute of History of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences successfully held in the city of Bakhchisaray the II International Academic Forum “Actual Problems of Study and Preservation of Historical and Cultural Legacy of the Crimea” Dedicated to the Memory of Mengli Giray. 60 participants from different regions of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan took part in the Forum. Speakers highlighted the most urgent issues and proposed solutions and implementation of the study and preservation of historical and cultural heritage of the Crimea. During the forum, four round tables were held to the following issues: “The Role of Preservation of Historical and Cultural Heritage and Development of the Tourist Potential of the Republic of Crimea”, “Problems of Preservation and Study of the Historical Heritage of the Crimea”, “Philology, Ethnography, Art and Culture of the Crimean Ethnic Groups: Traditions and Contemporaneity”, “Women’s Diplomacy Day” dedicated to the memory of Nur Sultan. The Forum was concluded with a visit to the exhibition in Zyndzhyrly madrassas (historical and architectural monument of the 16th century, Crimean Republican Institution “Bakhchisaray Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Museum-Reserve”) “Tugra and the Universe” (by I. Sheikh-Zade), in which the material from the eponymous work by Mirkasym Usmanov was used.

26–38

Authors: Uzelac A.

Nobleman Giacomo di Pietro Luccari, or Jakov Lukarević (1551–1615), was one of the several notable historians of the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) who lived and worked at the turn of the sixteenth and the seventeenth century. In 1605 in Venice, he published his book Copioso ristretto degli Annali di Ragusa. Luccari attempted to provide an overview of the history of his home city, as well as the states and peoples that influenced the history of Ragusa. One of the most interesting excurses in his work is related to the Mongol Empire, chiefly based on the works of Marco Polo and Hayton of Corycus, but also other less known source materials. Luccari also wrote short sketches about the Golden Horde and the Tatar presence in the Lower Danube region. In general, his book is unreliable source, full of factual mistakes, but it deserves attention of the researchers due to one particular reason. Namely, Luccari was the first South Slavic historian who dealt with the Tatars and their important place in the world history. Despite the considerable degree of popularity it enjoyed at the time of its appearance, Copioso ristretto is neither critically published, nor translated in any modern language so far. Therefore, in this paper, annotated Russian translation of the passages from the work of Luccari with respect to the Mongol Empire and the Tatars of the Golden Horde is presented to the wider circle of scholarly audience, accompanied by a short introductory study about the Ragusan historian and his work.

55–88

Authors: Kramarovsky M.G.

It was within the period between the second half of the thirteenth century and the early fourteenth century that the Northern Black Sea region started to get islamized. Solkhat, the administrative centre of the Golden Horde in the Crimea, played a crucial part in this process. The current paper is concerned with two closely related issues: the Anatolian diaspora and the development of the “Asia Minor” vector in the culture of Solkhat. According to some historical sources, the Seljuk expansion into the Crimea started as early as in the 1220s, when Hussam al-Din Chopan seized Sudak. The Seljuks built a garrison Mosque there and established the Sharia laws for a certain period of time. These actions, however, didn’t have a far-reaching effect. There is no evidence of the population being forced into Islam. When Hussam al-Din moved over to Rum, he left a garrison in Sudak to control the sea ports. The archaeological findings in the Byzantine settlement of Khersones reveal a more diverse pattern of relationships with Islamic Anatolia. The findings include a substantial group of the Seljuk ceramics of the thirteenth century, coins and some other artifacts. I believe it is not unlikely that there was a small Islamic community in the Northern part of the city. It could have been destroyed during the period of the Seljuk expansion in the first third of the thirteenth century. The Turkic people of Anatolia started to penetrate the Eastern Crimea in great numbers in 1265. This process was influenced by the diaspora made up of the supporters of the ex-sultan of Rum, ‘Izz ad-Din Kaykaus (1246–1257). ‘Izz ad-Din’s Horde arrived in Crimea via Dobrudja in 1265, following their patron. This fact is mentioned in a historical compilation made by a Turkish author Yiaziyi-oglu Ali under sultan Murad (1421–1451), probably, in 1424. According to this compilation, which, in its turn, is based on the information provided by Ibn Bibi (the thirteenth century), the horsemen warriors arrived in the Crimea with their families. The new-comers settled outside the city, but Solkhat and Sut(d)ak were given to ‘Izz ad-Din, khan Börke’s son-in-law, as the ikta. Another finding from Belogorsk area (the Crimea) is a hanging lead seal bearing the titles of the three rulers of Rum between 1249 and 1237, ‘Izz ad-Din Kaykaus II, Rukn al-Din-Kilich Arslan IV and Allah ad-Din Kayqubad I. It means that the contacts between Rum and the administration of the Golden Horde were established at least as early as in the middle of the thirteenth century. After ‘Izz ad-Din’s death (circa 1280) the Seljuks of Sary Sultuk returned to Dobrudja. Between 1265 and 1280 Kemal Baba’s (Kemal Ata’s) cult arose in Crimea. Kemal Baba was a sufi sheikh, a follower of Sary Sultuk. He died in 1278 in Solkhat, and it could have been by Sary Sultuk’s order and to commemorate Kemal Baba that the sufi abode and the mausoleum were built there. They used to be a ziyarat, but none of them has survived until nowadays. The contacts with Anatolia can be traced in the iconography of the double-headed eagle on the puls of Solkhat bearing Talabuga khan’s tamga (1287–1290); images of a double-headed eagle can be seen on Janibek’s puls in the middle of the fourteenth century. When the Jochids chose Islam as their religion, they unconsciously followed the Great Seljuks’ experience. There were a number of reasons for that. The first one is the fact that they chose a Sufi-like branch. According to C.E. Bosworth, they did so because the Turcic people’s Islam kept some traces of Seljuk tradition and some other Shamanistic beliefs. This hidden Paganism is believed to explain not only the choice of the Sunnite branch of Islam, but also of its Hanafite Maddhab. Under Börke (1257–1267), who was the first khan to adopt Islam, the new doctrine couldn’t neglect the fact that the khan’s surroundings belonged to different cultural backgrounds: Tengrism, Shamanism, Buddhism, Nestorianism. According to J.S. Trimingham, ‘Sufism’s role was of considerable significance, not as a Way, but through its men of power, manifested also after their death from their tombs, many of whose structures were raised by Mongol rulers’. In 1334 the Arab traveler Ibn Batutta was in Solkhat where he met Abu Bakr Rumi, a sheikh from Asia Minor, who wrote the Persian Sufi treatise Qalandar-name. A copy of Qalandar-name is being prepared for publishing by a group of scholars from Kazan, directed by Il’nur Mirgaleev. Abu Bakr was born in Akshehir (Anatolia), but apparently spent most of his life in Solkhat as the imam of one of the two jame mosques of the city. In his treatise poem he once refers to the ruler of Solkhat as ‘Seljuk’ – most probably, in order to flatter him. It is extremely important that the onomastic data from Solkhat often reveal the names of people belonging to the Seljuk Diaspora, whose fathers, according to nisbas, came from Anatolia, for example al-Kastamuni (the thirteenth century), al-Akhlati, at-Tokati, as-Sivasi, as well as Yaakub Konevi (1328), a sheikh from Otuz (the neighbourhood of Solkhat). Two more names worth mentioning here: those of the builders (architects) belonging to different generations of one and the same (?) family from Arbel (Irbil), the Northern Iraq. The first one is Abdul Aziz ibn Ibrahim al-Irbili, the author of the ‘Mosque of Uzbek’ (1314), whose name can be found in the dedicatory inscription on the portal. The name of the second one, Mahmud ibn Osman al-Irbili, is known from the keystone which we found in 1985 in the layer of destruction of a fifteenth century mausoleum. According to Ibn Battuta, the Sufi abodes (khanqahs) – centres of religious zeal and ‘schools’ where Sufi experience was taught – were founded by immigrants from Iraq, too. Thus, as we can see from the narrative sources, as well as from the names of the refugees from Anatolia and Northern Iraq, including those in the Crimea, the so called ‘minor migration’ was the second and, most probably, the main reason that the Seljuk ‘inoculation’ worked in the culture of the Islamic city communities. As to the materialistic component of life, the Seljuk influence can be traced in almost all the kinds of building and handicraft activities. The core of the Islamic Solkhat was formed between the first third of the fourteenth century and the second half of the fifteenth century. Its centre was the architectural ensemble of a madrasa and ‘the Mosque of Uzbek’, which was rebuilt on a new site. The new ‘Mosque of Uzbek’ repeated the portal, the mirhab and the main elements of the arcade of the original one, dating back to 1314. The mosque was obviously rebuilt closer to the Northern wall of the madrasa (built in the first third of the fourteenth century) in the late fifteenth century. In 1332–1333 Injebek Khatun, the mother of the Mongol ruler of the city, ordered and sponsored a new madrasa with four iwans and a portal of the Asia Minor style. The three-dimensional decorations of the mosque and the madrasa, including the two-level structure of the capitals, belong to the same tradition. Besides its didactical function, madrasa also served as a muvakkithane, that is, it was responsible for keeping prayer times. The Seljuk ceramics of Solkhat is represented by a series of glazed ceramics with under-glaze sgrafitto drawing. The most interesting finding is a bowl dating back to the first half of the fourteenth century. It shows a scene of a feast, where all the characters are exaggeratedly young, courageous and equal in their positions at the feast. The most natural idea is that they must be members of an association of young men who were called the fityan (sg. fata – ‘young man’, ‘youth’) in the Near East. Since the ninth century the fityan clubs were called futuwwa (‘young-manliness, chivalry). The ideas and the rites of the fityan penetrated Asia Minor under Izz ad-Din Kaykawus I (1210–1219), who was caliph an-Nasir’s son-in-law. The Seljuk tradition is also visible in the shape and decorations of two groups of rings. The first one comprises niello silver rings characterized by a stirrup-shaped outline with a flat diamond-shaped plate whose angles are decorated with fake settings without inlay. The second one is represented by a ring of goldish bronze dating back to the fourteenth–fifteenth centuries. Another group of findings is represented by the end plates of silver belt sets. Most of them were found in the barrows of Belorechinsk burial ground in Northern Caucasus. If we take into consideration the similarities between the decorations and the dragon-head motives of the end plates on one hand and those of the belt plate from Belorechinsk barrow, we’ll come to the conclusion that a new seam of artistic metalwork following the Seljuk tradition has been discovered not only in the Caucasus, but also in the Crimea. The fittings of Belorechinsk barrow no. 8 are among the most outstanding monuments of the kind. A similar belt set was discovered in 2005 in a male tomb in the central nave of the Mangup basilica (the Mountainous Crimea). The shooting belt (dated by Keldibek khan’s paiza at 1361) from the Simpheropol treasure belongs to the same group of findings. I believe that this golden belt set, as well as a number of other findings, could have been made in Solkhat. These belt sets were ordered by the elite of the Golden Horde (including those in Solkhat), and the Simpheropol treasure itself belonged to the ruler of Solkhat, Kutlugh Buga. Let me remind you that it was his mother, Injebek Khatun, who invited a building crew in the early 1330s to build the madrasa in Solkhat. Thus, our findings from the South-Eastern Crimea and the Northern Caucasus mostly dating back to the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries demonstrate that the Seljuk cultural and artistic traditions were kept in the towns and regions of the foothills of the Northern Caucasus. These traditions were brought by the Islamic diaspora from Anatolia during the period when the Seljukid state collapsed.

102–114

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M., Reva R.Yu.

This article compares the numismatic data on the Jochids with information of two genealogical sources (Paris copy of “Mu'izz al-Ansab” and Leningrad copy of “Tavarikh-i Guzida-i Nusrat-nama”) in order to identify the khans listed in these sources. Based on a comparative analysis of the data provided by these sources we have described and identified their degree of political engagement. A. Isin believed that “Mu'izz al-Ansab” was politically biased against the descendants of Urus Khan. The author of “Mu'izz al-Ansab” highlighted the khans graphically. The article does not investigated the khans from the descendants of Batu, who were also highlighted graphically. The list of the khans contained in “Mu'izz al-Ansab” is following: Tokhtamish Khan, Jalal al-Din Khan, Kerimberdy Khan, Köpek Khan, Kadyrberdy Khan, Seid Ahmed Khan, Muhammed Khan, Dauletberdy Khan, Timur Khan, Timur-Qutluq Khan, Timur Khan, Muhammed Khan, Shadibek Khan, Ghiyas al-Din Khan, Dervish Khan, Urus Khan, Toqtaqiya Khan, Timur Malik Khan, Barak Khan. All these khans are indicated there as the descendants of Tuqa-Timur, the son of Jochi. None of the descendants of Shiban Khan, son of Jochi, are indicated in “Mu'izz al-Ansab” as a khan. Dzhumaduk is identified as a potential khan by a postscript next to his name in the following sentence: “they want to make him ruler despite the fact that his father is still alive”. Thus, we can say that “Mu'izz al-Ansab” is a source sympathetic to the Tuqa-Timurids. A version that “Mu'izz al-Ansab” was compiled against Urus Khan and his descendants could not be proved. The list of the khans contained in “Tavarikh-i Guzida-i Nusrat-nama” is following (excluding the descendants of Batu): Shiban Khan, Ming-Timur Khan, Mahmoud Khwaja Khan, Khizr Khan, Abul Khair Khan, Sheikh Haidar Khan, Said Baba Khan, Khush-Haidar Khan, Haji Muhammed Khan, Sayidak Khan, Mahmudak Khan, Abak Khan, Khizr Khan, Timur Khwaja Khan, Bazarchi Khan, Tokhtamish Khan, Muhammed Khan, Ghiyas al-Din Khan, Timur Qutluq Khan, Muhammed Khan, Ahmad Khan, Shadibek Khan, Mustafa Khan, Dervish Khan, Dzhegre Khan, Urus Khan, Barak Khan. 13 descendants of Shiban, 12 descendants of Tuqa-Timur and 1 descendant of Tangut are indicated in “Tavarikh-i Guzida-i Nusratnama” as the khans. On this basis, we can say that “Tavarikh-i Guzida-i Nusratnama” is moderately pro-Shibanid source.

128–136

Authors: Zaytsev I.V.

The article represents an attempt both of reconstruction of the Kazan sultan Hudayqul (Petr) ibn Ibrahim’s biography and of reconsideration of the reading of his epitaph in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Prince Hudayqul arrived to Rus’ in 1487, when, after the Moscow campaign against Kazan, Alegam Khan with his wife were exiled to Vologda and his mother (Fatima), brothers (Melek-Tagir and Hudayqul) and sisters were deported to Kargolom on Beloozero. December 21, 1505, Hudayqul was baptized under the name of Peter in Moscow in the presence of the Grand Duke, his younger brothers and boyars. January 25, 1506, Peter was betrothed to Evdokia, a sister of the Grand Duke, in the Assumption Cathedral of Kremlin. In such a way Vasily became related with the Kazan Chinggisids, and Moscow could exploit a baptized contender for the throne of Kazan. In September 1509, Vasily took with him his son-in-law in Novgorod. In winter 1512/13, Peter led a large regiment during the campaign against Mozhaysk. In February 1513, his wife Evdokia died. During the Lithuanian campaign of the summer and autumn of 1513, he stayed in Moscow, together with his nephews. In the summer of 1514, during the Lithuanian campaign, he again was left in Moscow. In April 1517, he attended a reception of the Imperial ambassador Sigismund Herberstein. In the spring of 1522, Peter was left again in Moscow during a Vasily III’s campaign against the Crimean Khan. Date of Hudayqul’s death carved in his epitaph (March 13, 7016/1508) seems to be incorrect because the prince was definitely alive in 1522. Hence the funeral slab was made much later after his death and the date on it is a consequence of misunderstood chronicle data describing the Archangel Cathedral. The generally accepted date of Hudayqul’s death (1523) proposed by A.A.Zimin was produced as conditional one (although a very plausible).

158–181

Authors: Minnegulov Kh.Yu.

Already in ancient and medieval times, the Turks and their ancestors – Proto-Turks – established their own states and accumulated considerable political and administrative experience in the management and administration of their own countries. Their activities in this field was conditioned by the historical reality. They have also been displayed, in varying degrees, in the written literature, in particular: in runic inscriptions and the writings of Yusuf Balasaguni, Yugneki, Kul Gali and other authors. As is known, during two centuries of its existence, the Golden Horde left a deep mark in the statehood history and spiritual life of the peoples of Eurasia and even of the Northern Africa (Mamluk Egypt). Various problems of social and spiritual life are reflected in the preserved written literature of the Jochid ulus. Issues related to the ruler and his relationship with his subjects occupy an important place among these problems, as well as the problem of creating such a society, which would be reigned by “prosperity”, “happiness” and “justice”. Professor Kh.Yu. Minnegulov examines these questions by analyzing the works of such leading Turkish-Tatar writers and poets of the Golden Horde as: Rabguzi, Qutb, Khwarizmi, Mahmud Bulgari, Hisam Kyatib, Saif Sarayi, Ahmed Urgendzhi and others. The author points out that almost all the masters of the pen wanted the Lord being the ideal, perfect man (“Kamil Insan”) in every respect, especially fair, educated, morally mannered person. In their opinion, not the people but the sovereign should serve his subjects as a “shepherd” (“chuban”) and a “healer”. Some writings do not give preference to ordinary rulers, but to the reigning prophets (“Kyyssas al-Anbiya”, 1310; “Nahj al-Faradis”, 1358). In turn, in his poem “Jumjuma Sultan” (1369), the Sufi poet Hisam Kyatib even condemns and denies, to a certain extent, the “sultan’s power”. The writers urge the Golden Horde rulers to mostly listen to the views of scholars and religious leaders and remind them of the transience of life, implacability of death, as well as of the need to leave behind a “good name”.

193–207

Authors: Shamsimukhametova M.R., Shagaviev D.A.

The presented fragment contains the next two parts of the translation of the medieval poetic text the “Qalandar-name” of Abu Bakr Qalanadar, who was the Sufi scholar from the Crimea. These two Chapters are devoted to praises to Ali ibn Abi Talib al-Murtadha (the Pleased), the Successor of the Prophet Muhammad, the forth of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs (al-Khulafa al-rashidun), and to his two sons, Hasan and Hussein. The Persian text is translated by Milyausha Shamsimukhametova (Ismagilova), a post-graduate student of Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AS RT (Kazan). The poet gives us some ideas about main virtues of these three famous Saints of Islam. The translation’s edition and comments are supplied by Damir Shagaviev, Head of the Department of History of Religions and Social Thought at Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AS RT (Kazan).

229–232

Authors: Giniyatullina L.S.

At the end of 2015 Sh.Marjani Institute of History of AS RT published a new monograph by Roman Hautala in the framework of a special project «Textual Heritage» of Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates dedicated to publication and translation of a variety of medieval sources on the Golden Horde history. In his book Hautala presented major part of Latin sources containing early European information about the Tatar-Mongols and written in the period preceding the invasion of Hungary by nomadic army headed by Batu. Thus, the monograph contains historical documents and fragments of Latin chronicles, which were compiled before 1241. This anthology is aimed at presenting evolution of the European perception of the Tatar-Mongols gradually changing due to accumulation of fragmented information obtained from the East. The monograph’s main section entitled “Sources” contains 91 fragments from Latin sources with information on the growing territorial expansion of the Mongol Empire. Each of these fragments contains, in turn, information about the author and circumstances of their compilation, original text with all significant discrepancies, and Russian translation with detailed comments. The “Sources” section is preceded by an introductory part containing a detailed analysis of the sources in the context of contemporary historical research. At the end of the monograph the author has placed Latin and Russian index of names and places, which facilitates the search for materials on a particular historical, geographical, or prosopographical topics. The author classifies the presented information on the Tatar-Mongols according to two main geographical regions of its origin and subsequent arrival to Europe. Subsection “Mentions of the Mongol Expansion in Reports from the Middle East” contains the earliest information about the Tatar-Mongols during the period of Chinggis Khan’s campaign against Khwarezm and further conquest by the Mongol Empire of the Transcaucasian region. Next subsection “Information on the Relations between the Kingdom of Hungary and Cumans” provides information about intensification of the relations between the Árpád monarchy and neighboring nomads on the eve of the Tatar invasion. These relations had a direct impact on the course of the imminent attack of the army of Batu against Hungary and subsequent interactions between the ulus of Jochi and Kingdom of Hungary, which included in its structure a significant number of Cumans escaped the subordination to the Mongol Empire. The third and last subsection “Information on the Mongol Western Campaign” includes reports about the impending Tatar attack that arrived to Western Europe through the Hungarian Kingdom. In each subsection the author arranged the sources in chronological order allowing to trace the process of accumulation of Western information about the Tatar-Mongols. In addition, this order also allows to trace the evolution of the perception of the Tatar-Mongols in the Latin world. In particular, the information received from the Middle East reflect the initial perception of the Tatar-Mongols as potential allies of the Christians in their fight against the Muslims of Syria and Egypt. Later, during the Mongol re-conquest of the Transcaucasian region, the Tatar-Mongols began to be depicted as “noble savages” who avoided “corrupting” influence of civilization, but were not deprived of sympathy toward Christianity. It was only due to the news of the persecution against Christians in the Middle East that the Tatar-Mongols came to be perceived the “devil incarnates”, performing, nevertheless, the role that was prepared for them in eschatological scenarios of Latin Christianity (this evolution has a direct impact on the choice of the title of this anthology). In turn, the information coming from the Kingdom of Hungary (that was not deprived of similar eschatological interpretations) contains more specific and realistic information about the Tatar-Mongols including detailed information on the warfare and composition of the nomadic army, which was approaching the eastern borders of the Latin World.

237–238

Authors: Aksanov A.V.

November 20, 2015, Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates held a round-table dedicated to issues of law development in the Kazan Khanate. I.M. Mirgaleev, Cand. Sci. (History), Head of Usmanov Center for Research on the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates acted as a moderator of this event. Roman Pochekaev, Cand. Sci. (Jurisprudence), Professor, Head of Department of Theory and History of Law and State of the National Research University, Higher School of Economics in St. Petersburg, made a presentation on the theme of the “Legal System of the Kazan Khanate”. The discussion of presentation was attended by: I.L. Izmailov, Cand. Sci. (History), Leading Research Fellow of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan; I.A. Mustakimov, Cand. Sci. (History), Head of the Academic Use of Archival Documents and International Relations of the Main Archival Administration under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Tatarstan; as well as by Center staff: A.V. Aksanov, Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow; T.F. Khaidarov, Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow; E.G. Sayfetdinova, Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow; Rakhimzyanov B.R., Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow; Baibulatova L.F., Cand. Sci. (History), Senior Research Fellow. The participants of the discussion not only managed to identify the key issues and outline prospects for further research but also put forward the original hypotheses and develop some methods for their verification.