Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review

6-24

Authors: Khakimov R.S.

Author of this article examines the relationship between history and ideology. Apart from the purely academic approach allowing to create an objective picture of the past events, history is widely used for ideological purposes. This is facilitated by the ability of the characters, events, and symbols of the past to motivate people to those or other actions, to consolidate the society around the significant ideas. Often, the intervention of ideology in exposition of history leads to a distortion of the past. Attitude to the Tatar factor in world history is an example of such an approach. Despite the achievements of the humanities, a false “story” about the Tatars, the Golden Horde has been preserved until today.The rewriting of history does not always act as its distortion or excuse for specific policies. It may be caused by the need for a modern interpretation of the past in connection with the emergence of new problems. In such a case rethinking of the past becomes a way both of overcoming the backwardness of society in one or another sphere and of correcting missed opportunities. Some “birthmarks” of this system emerge in connection with the return of Russia to capitalism. Russia faces the task of overcoming the “Long Middle Ages” through assimilation of the achievements of modern civilization.

50-56

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M., Khamidova Ch.I.

The authors of the present study describe the Rashid al-Din’s work “Shuab-i pandjghana” obtained from the archives of the Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul and containing genealogies of the reigning dynasties of the “five peoples”. The article contains a brief description of the previous study of this important Rashid al-Din’s work. The authors also analyze the information on the “Shuab-i pandjghana” contained in the A.P.Grigoryev’s study. The authors present their own version about how “Shuab-i pandjghana” got to Anatolia, how the latest version of Rashid al-Din’s work corresponds to his famous composition “Jami al-tawarikh”. The study contains comparison of the information given in two Rashid al-Din’s works – “Jami al-Tawarikh” and “Shuab-i pandjghana”, which shows the difference between them. The authors believe that the information gathered for “Jami al-tawarikh” was the main source, but then some additions and corrections were made. The authors of the article also make an attempt to determine the date when this genealogy was created. They think that this genealogy was compiled later than it is considered to be based on the information given in the preface of the “Shuab-i pandzhgana” and the genealogies. Also one of the arguments is that while writing such a large-scale work as “Jami al-tawarikh” it is difficult to prepare other complex work as genealogies. In the authors’ opinion the fact that the manuscript nowadays is known only in one copy counts in favor of the point of view that the work refers to the end of author’s life. According to the article, by using “Shuab-i pandjghana” one can both accurately trace the genealogy of the Batuid rulers in the Golden Horde and also have an excellent background information for understanding the genealogies of other Jochid branches.

69-76

Authors: Kemaloglu I.

Istanbul, throughout its history, has accommodated many states and civilizations. Therefore, the city besides having different names, also has monuments and places of worship belonging to various cultures and faiths. Due to this characteristics of the city there are Catholic, Orthodox, Armenian and Protestant churches along with the mosques and synagogues. Although the Mongols of Genghis Khan has never ruled Istanbul, one of the churches in the city is called Church of St. Mary of the Mongols. Called Despina khatun by the Mongols, St. Mary, whose names is given to the church, is the daughter of a Byzantine emperor Michael VIII. The Byzantine emperors paid importance to establish kinship ties both with Golden Horde and Ilkhanid states. Through the princes they aimed at preserving the balance and wanted to please the khans. Pursuing this policy, Mary had married to an Ilkhanid khan, Abaqa. After his death she returned to Istanbul and devoted herself to religion. Surviving until present, the church that was built and named by herself in Istanbul attracts attention both with its story of foundation and its name.

96-112

Authors: Khaydarov T.F., Dolbin D.A.

The article reviews the reasons for origin and consequences of spreading for the second plague pandemic in the Golden Horde. By applying scientific data from biology, climatology, medicine, and history, authors come to a conclusion that a large number of natural plague pestholes existed initially in the Ulus of Jochi. Numerous historical sources mentioned plague outbreaks but all of them were of purely local character. The bubonic type of plague characterized by a longer period of illness and an insignificant number of lethal episodes was spread more widely. In the mid-40s of the 14th century a new form of disease, the lung plague, came into existence. It was corpse blackening of the deceased from this type of plague that gave name to the whole pandemic – the “Black Death”. The speed of its progress and spreading significantly exceeded those of the bubonic type and 100% of mortality was recorded among the diseased. However, as historical data show, the outbreak of the lung plague continued in the territory of the Golden Horde from 1346 to 1349. In their article authors prove that one of the most important reasons for the emergence of the lung type was the change in migration flows of Eurasian rodents caused by depletion of nutritional resources in the steppe and serious climatic changes. All other outbreaks of the Black Death are viewed as continuation of the first wave of the disease and their emergence is explained through activity of two natural pestholes (the Relict North-Western and the Lower Volga ones). Consequences of the the first wave were much less substantial for the Ulus of Jochi than those of the following outbreaks (in 1364, 1374, and 1395). The main consequences of the next waves of the disease were: final establishment of 4 political centers (Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Bulgar and the Crimean uluses, and the Blue Horde) striving for political leadership in the territory of the former Golden Horde; establishment of a new ethnic group of the Volga Tatars; and strengthening of Islam’s position in the region.

134-147

Authors: Rudenko K.A.

The article considers the beginning of the Mongol invasion of Europe, a key moment in the history of Europe. Written sources contain little information about these events. Therefore, the main sources are the archaeological materials. Archaeological findings help us to reconstruct the process of the conquest of Volga Bulgaria. It was the first State that the Mongols conquered during the Western campaign. We can find out the nature of the changes in the Bulgar region of the Golden Horde, which occurred during the second half of the 13th century, both by exploring materials of such major Bulgarian cities as Bilyar, Bolghar, Juketau, Iski-Kazan (which became later the Golden Horde urban centers) as well as by studying the materials of rural settlements. If the hillforts’ materials indicate both the preservation of pre-Mongol traditions and significant innovations, then the materials of rural settlements are different and very individual. Insufficient research of the Golden Horde settlements does not allow us to make generalizations and detailed analysis. But we can identify a number of leading directions in the different periods of the Golden Horde history on the basis of the excavation of some settlements in the Western Trans-Kama region.

166-197

Authors: Gulevich V.P.

The first third of the 15th century was difficult and the most important period in formation of the Crimean Khanate. Despite the importance of the Crimea for the Golden Horde, it was rather peripheral district. The impossibility to control the situation on the peninsula has led to the fact that the Emir Idegei and his khans returned to the practice started by Toktamysh Khan at the end of the 14th century and allowed a local Chingizid Khan Bek-Sufi (from the genus of Tuka-Timur) to rule in the Crimea. As a ruler of the Crimean Ulus, Beck-Sufi Saray recognized the power of the Saray khans, whose governors were constantly in Solkhat. Khan Dawlet Berdi, brother of Beck-Sufi Khan, also received the approval from the Ulugh Muhammad Khan to rule in the Crimea, but tried to seize the power in the Golden Horde and lost. Thus, there is no reason to remove the date of the emergence of the Crimean khans and Crimean Khanate itself from 1442 to 1420. On the contrary to the accepted view of the active intervention of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas in the history of the Golden Horde, an objective analysis of the sources for the period of 1400–1430 does not confirm this.

208-215

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M.

In 2013 R.P. Khrapachevsky published a monograph “The Polovtsy-Kuns in the Volga-Ural Interfluve (according to the Chinese sources)”. The review outlines all the advantages and disadvantages of this academic work. Two main advantageous moments in the book under review are as follows. Full biography of Tutuq translated into Russian. More extensive argument of the thesis about the correct reading of the name of a distant ancestor of Tutuq (Qu-nien “Kunan” rather, than Quchu). Otherwise, the book under review contains a large number of errors which nullify those advantageous points raised above. It is worth noting that in terms of historiography R.P. Khrapachevsky ignores and does not use a lot of work on the Kipchaks, such as the works of S.M. Akhinzhanov, Ya.V. Pilipchuk, P. Pelliot, etc. Also the hypothesis that the Hunan (tribal chief of Tsubu tribe) is identical to Kunan (ancestor of Tutuq) is very perspective. The hypothesis of R.P. Khrapachevsky that Hunan and Kunan are two different people are not reasoned. In his book R.P. Khrapachevsky put forward the following theses: the real name of the Tutuq’s ancestor was not Qu-chu (Kucuk) but Qu-nien (Kunyan in the interpretation of R.P. Khrapachevsky). The name of Kunyan, who was the leader of the tribe of Kuns and ancestor of Tutuq, is translated as a “sample (example) of the Kuns”. According to R.P. Khrapachevsky, Inasy, the grandson of Kunyan, was born about 1115–1120 and died between 1208 and 1217. So, Kunyan was born in the middle of 12th century and led the migration of Kuns. The horde of Inasy first encountered the Mongols in 1208–1210 to help Khudu, chief of the Merkit tribe. All theses of R.P. Khrapachevsky contradict the primary sources’ information and hypotheses of other authors who have studied the Kipchaks. According to the Yuan-shi and Nasavi, the ruling tribe of Kipchaks was Bayaut but not Kun.

218-233

Authors: Hautala R.

The article contains a report on the international conference “Mobility and Transformations: Economic and Cultural Exchange in Mongol Eurasia” held in Jerusalem from 29th June to 1st July, 2014. The conference was organized by the Israel Institute of Advanced Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The main scope of the conference was to find an answer to the question: how the various forms of mobility, i.e. migration of large groups of people and broad dissemination of ideas and artifacts, affected the formation of intercultural exchange in the Mongol Empire of the 13th–14th centuries, and how great was the influence of these transformations? In particular, special attention in the conference was paid to the reconstruction of the cultural, commercial, religious, and intellectual exchanges within the Mongol Empire. The conference participants presented their reports on specific thematic panels. Therefore, the author describes them separately, including a brief description of the report of each participant. The participants of the conference reflects, to some extent, actual interests of contemporary researchers of the Mongol Empire.

6-21

Authors: Khakimov R.S.

Historical studies are based on the assumption that there is a reference-starting point of the space-time – the Zero point of coordinate system. Due to the bifurcation in the Zero Point, the course of social processes changes sharply and the probabilistic causality replaces the deterministic one. For this reason, changes occur in the structure of social relations and statehood form as well as in the course of the ethnic processes. In such a way emerges a new discourse of the national behavior. With regard to the history of the Tatars and Tatarstan, such bifurcation points occurred in the periods of the formation: 1) of the Turkic Khaganate, which began to exist from the 6th century onward and became a qualitatively new State system that reformatted old elements in the new matrix introducing a new discourse of behavior; 2) of the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, where the rivers (Kama, Volga, Vyatka) became the most important trade routes determining the singularity of this State. Here the nomadic culture was connected with the settled one and Islam became the official religion in 922; 3) and of the Golden Hordе, a powerful State with a remarkable system of communication, migration of huge human resources for thousands of kilometers, and extensive trade, that caused severe “mutations” in the ethnic terms and a huge mixing of ethnic groups. Given the dwelling space of Tatar population and its evolution within Russia, it can be argued that the Zero point of Tatar history, which conveyed the cultural invariants until today, begins in the Golden Horde. Neither in the Turkic khaganate nor in the Bulgar State, but namely in the Golden Horde. Despite the radical changes, the Russian Empire failed to transform the Tatars in the Russians. Therefore, contemporary Tatars preserved the Golden Horde tradition as a cultural invariant.

31-48

Authors: Hautala R.

The present article contains the Latin text, Russian translation, and commentary to the yarlyk of Uzbek khan (1312/13–1341). Uzbek khan granted this yarlyk to the Franciscans of the Golden Horde 20th March, 1314. Apparently, the original text of yarlyk was written in the Khwarezmian idiom of the Kipchak language. However, the original text of yarlyk has not been preserved as well as a number of other yarlyks of the Golden Horde khans, which survived only in the late Russian translation. Fortunately, this yarlyk was translated into Latin and, subsequently, this translation was rewritten by anonymous British copyist in the first half of the 14th century. Arthur Christopher Moule discovered this medieval copy of yarlyk along with several other Franciscan documents in one of the codices (D. Ii. 3.7.) stored in the Cambridge University Library. In 1924, Moule published the first and only edition of the yarlyk’s copy together with other Franciscan sources, provided with a thorough preface of Michael Bihl. The text of this Uzbek’s yarlyk have never been translated into modern languages. For this reason, the content of yarlyk has been known only to a narrow circle of specialists studying the Catholic missionary activity in the Mongol Empire. In turn, the scholars of the Golden Horde history, including researchers of the Jochid official documentation, have been unaware of this important legal document up to the present time. The content of Uzbek khan’s yarlyk points out that this document was based on the previous yarlyks of khan Mengu-Timur (1267–1282) and khan Tokhta (1291–1312). Thus, the content of yarlyk allows us to define the time of an emergence and future activities of the Franciscans in the territory of the Golden Horde. Furthermore, this information provide further evidence on the religious tolerance practice of the Jochid khans. In this context, the most significant is an indication of the Uzbek khan’s tolerant attitude toward Christians, despite the fact of his conversion to Islam.

80-102

Authors: Pilipchuk Ya.V.

This article considers the relationship between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Khanate of Kazan. The aim of this study is to analyze the dynamics and characteristics of the relations of the Kazan Khanate with Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Jagiellonian eastern policy is rightfully considered as one of the most important policy directions of the Polish Kings and Grand Dukes of Lithuania in the 16th century. Researchers have traditionally paid much more attention to the history of relations of the Crimean Khanate with Lithuania and Poland. Relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Kazan Khanate have been considered in the source study articles by D. Mustafina and B. Trepavlov analyzing the content of documents preserved in the Lithuanian State Archives (Lithuanian Methric). The main theme of this article is the military and political history of Eastern Europe in the first half of the 16th century. The author aims to clarify to what extent the European policy of the Kazan Khanate depended on the personalities of Sahib Giray and Safa Giray and their personal relations with Sigismund I the Old. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that the author is the first to present to the researchers’ attention a complete picture of the Kazan-Lithuanian relations rather than focusing on particular issues of relations between the individual Grand Dukes and khans. The article examines the history of the interaction of the Kazan Tatars with Lithuanians and Poles in the context of relations of Lithuania with the Russian State and Crimean Khanate. Attempts to establish an anti-Russian alliance were undertaken during the first half of the 16th century. Mohammed Amin, from the dynasty of Ulugh Muhammad, expressed interest in the establishment of the union in 1506 only by the fact that it was profitable for him. In 1516–1518, the proposals of Sigismund I the Old to make an alliance did not meet the response in Kazan. In general, the dynasty of Ulugh Muhammad was not a supporter of rapprochement with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The real union between the Kazan Tatars and Lithuanians became possible only during the second rule of Safa Giray in Kazan. Only once and namely in 1535–1537, the Lithuanians supported Kazan in the war against the Russians. The continuous contact between the Kazan Khanate and Grand Duchy of Lithuania was only possible when the alliance was supported by the Crimean Khanate. Mutual raids of the Cossacks of Grand Duchy of Lithuania and troops of the Tatar frontier beys were one of the main destabilizing factors in the relationship between the Jagiellonians and Girays. The Kazan embassy to the Lithuanians and Poles in 1551 found no response from Sigismund II Augustus. The Jagiellonians were not interested in an alliance with the Kazan Tatars. Only the Crimean Girays and eastern Nogays were the staunch allies of Kazan.

121-138

Authors: Maslyuzhenko D.N.

The author of this article identifies the daily and political traditions in the Khanate of Abu al-Khair, which researchers traditionally call the “State of nomadic Uzbeks”. This State was created in the south of Western Siberia in the 1430’s and annexed by military means to the land of Shiban’s (the younger brother of Batu) descendants. The overwhelming majority of researchers consider it as a Muslim State since its very foundation, substantiating their allegations by indication both on the reading of khutba in honor of Khan after he took the “throne of Sain Khan” and on the presence of the sheikhs and Sufis in his entourage. At the same time, the authority of Abu al-Khair had the strong support of nomadic elite of more than twenty tribes. Precisely this elite, its inquiries and interests, which were advocated on the nobility councils, formed the existing political and daily traditions. These traditions reflect the preservation of Turko-Mongol customs among nomadic populations. We can find analogies of these practices in the earlier customs among the precursors of post-Golden Horde State, i.e., in the Mongol Empire and the ulus of Jochi. Traditions of the Abu al-Khair’s Khanate represented a phenomenon of cultural inertia, which were restored in the conditions of Islamization and could become the adats. This effect is particularly significant in view of the specific attitude of Sufi tariqats to the phenomena of social life. In political terms, of particular importance among these was the restoration of the Toy and the related kurultay that could take place in accordance with the existing steppe (animals) calendar. The khans restored the ritual of robes and belts’ distribution as the main mechanism for redeployment of posts and responsibilities among the steppe aristocracy. Military tradition was also focused on samples of the previous time, which was particularly manifested in the selection of wings and avant-garde. In the course of military operations, there was the prevalent practice of magical rites known since the early Middle Ages and aimed at influencing the weather by means of the magic stone “yada” and Yadachi-sorcerers.

153-174

Authors: Schamiloglu U.

This paper presents in summary form results of the author’s study of the Turkic-Muslim sources. A number of Turkic narrative sources are preserved to us from the post-Golden Horde time, i.e. period of the successor States of the Golden Horde of the 15th–18th centuries. These narrative sources (mainly chronicles) are of fundamental importance for the study of the Eurasian history in the 13th–18th centuries. Since most of these works are available only in the original Turkish, they remain inaccessible and sometimes even unknown to the main part of modern scholars. Therefore, the author provides an overview of these historical writings, together with a more detailed study of one particular work, “Umdet ul-Ahbar / Umdetul-ahbar”. He expresses the hope that this review will contribute to the integration of the Turkic sources in the study of the western Eurasian history. This article contains several examples showing how useful can be this later source for understanding the history of the ulus of Jochi in the 13th century. The author pays special attention to this source’s information both about the existence of “ruling clans (tribes)” and on the role of the Karachi beys and kurultay in the government of the ulus of Jochi and post-Golden Horde States. The author emphasizes the role of Shiban and his descendants in determination of the Jochid foreign policy, in the implementation of their conquests in the West and distribution of the uluses in Eastern Europe and, in particular, in the Crimea. Although the later Turkic-Muslim sources require a more detailed analysis, this article represents the first pioneering step in this direction.

191-206

Authors: Korpela J.

The east European trade of slaves was big business. It had long roots at least from the age of Vikings and thousands of prisoners were transported yearly from Crimea and Kazan’ – Astrakhan to the markets of Central Asia, Asia Minor and Mediterranean area and finally even to India. The wars of the 15th and 16th centuries may have increased the number of northern slaves in the Muscovite – Volga markets. The slaves of the trade were divided into two main categories. First there were ordinary cheap manpower and secondly extraordinary cases which were bought for the harems for noble families and as luxury. The point of this article is to illuminate the difference between baptized and unbaptized persons in the connection of the slave trade. It is namely curious that this religious aspect was stressed so seriously, and therefore it requests for an explanation. This phenomenon belongs only to the late 16th century. The state formation had created the Baptism as a criterium for the subject of ruler and this as a side product the protection against slave trade. From the author’s point of view one should pay attention to: 1) The slave trade of blond (nemci) girls must have been a big issue already early, because the administration building did not of course form the request. 2) Earlier the religion of the trading objects was a concern of the Church but not of the ruler. When the new economic thinking created an idea of realm economy, the people living in the realm became to means of production and tax payers. This required to limit their kidnapping away. 3) Because the religion became to be a criterium in state formation it became accidentally also a qualification of slave trade. 4) The traders did not take otherwise care of religious issues in this connection, and therefore the illegal trade may have continued also with baptized persons.

215-227

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M.

The author of this review examines four main types of errors contained in the B.A. Muratov’s book “Ethnogenesis of the Bashkirs: Historiography and Contemporary Research”. Factual errors. The author often makes factual errors by inventing some facts or ideas, which he attributes to certain researchers. Methodological errors. An improper use of the population genetics methods has led the author of this monograph to incorrect conclusions. The author does not use at all such methods as multidimensional scaling, calculation of genetic distances, AMOVA, cluster analysis, etc. In turn, the author incorrectly uses such methods as the construction of phylogenetic networks and the allocation of close haplotypes based on networks of clusters. The author has not made a selection of modal haplotype (haplotype of the founder). He made a lot of mistakes in calculating TMRCA (the lifetime of the first common ancestor) based on genealogical and evolutionary rates of mutations. One of the main error is the small sample size for the study of Bashkir clans (n=45). Therefore, the conclusions drawn from such a small sample, are poorly reasoned. Historical fantasy. For example, B.A. Muratov quite unreasonably hypothesizes about the genetic connection of the Bashkir tribe Burzyan with the Mongol tribe Kiyat-Bordjigin. He also put forward unsubstantiated hypotheses about the genetic connection of the same Bashkir tribe Burzyan with Kurds, Ossetians-Digorians, Berendeys. At the same time. Muratov, naturally, did not provide any genetic evidence (belonging to a common terminal SNP-marker). Grammatical mistakes. The main thesis of the B.A. Muratov’s book sounds like: the Bashkirs are (certain) “Turanians”. The main mistake here is the identification of SNP-marker Z2123 with the ethno-religious category of “Turan”. This identification is not methodologically correct as social constructs and genetic markers are different in nature of their appearance, functioning and development. Thus, the mixing of genetic markers and ethno-religious is not methodologically correct when reconstructing history

237-243

Authors: Maslyuzhenko D.N., Tataurov S.F.

The article summarizes the results of the Second National Research Conference “History, Economics and Culture of the Medieval Turko-Tatar States of Western Siberia”, which was held in Kurgan on 17th–18th April 2014. 38 researchers from Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine participated at the Conference. The Conference was focused on several topics. On the first day, the Conference started with the issues of the Shiban’s ulus history and a role of the Shibanids in the history of the Golden Horde, including the issue of the borders of these lands, the ulus of Jochi’s place in its administrative structure, the participation of representatives of the dynasty in the events of the Great Zamyatnya (i.e, the Great Distemper) and strives of the 1420’s. There were also discussed the ethnic and political processes in the Tyumen and Siberian Yurt. Considerable attention was paid to the Turkization of the Western Siberian population and formation of various groups of the Siberian Tatars. Researchers have noted the limitations of the source base of the late-medieval history of the region and the need for a comprehensive approach to the research involving experts in the fields of history, archaeology, ethnography, anthropology, linguistics. A separate debate was held on the role of the Nogai and Bukhara factor in the history of the Kuchum Siberian khanate. On the second day, there were discussed various aspects of the Turkic-Tatar peoples’ occurrence from the Ural-Irtysh interfluve to the Russian State. There were presented reports both on the policy and destiny of the Kuchum descendants and legal and military aspects of the Tatar yurtes’ subordination. There was held a discussion about two versions of the Ichkinski Tatar ethnogenesis as a special group of the Tatar population of the region. Thereupon, the conference participants called for a cautious stance on the use of ethnic reconstructions in Turkic history and their use in the construction of modern inter-ethnic relations in Russia. There were also presentations on issues of spiritual and material culture of the Tatar peoples of Western Siberia. Considerable attention was paid to the Islamization of the Turkish-Tatar groups in Western Siberia and the existence of Islamic institutions in the region by under Russian power.

6-20

Authors: Zhdanovich O.

The present article contains the translation and commentary to a fragment from the text of early Byzantine historian Menander Protector of the 6th century who describes the first Byzantine embassy to the Turks in 568. This source is extremely important for the study of relations between civilizations in the early medieval period. When commenting the original source, the author sought to look through the eyes of the Romans on the relationship between European Byzantine and Asian steppe civilizations. The Turks drew attention to Byzantium in order to achieve with its help the diplomatic blockade of Persia and to derive from this maximum benefit. In 568, the Turkic khagan sent to Constantinople an embassy headed by the military leader Maniah. As a result of the negotiations, both sides agreed on joint military operations, which were to be undertaken, if necessary, against Persia and Avar tribes. But more important was the fact that the Turks obtained from Byzantium the right to control over Silk Road. In August 568, there occurred a reciprocal visit to the khanate. The Byzantine embassy was headed by Zemarh, commander of the eastern cities. The Romans’ journey to Altai was interesting and exciting since they knew nothing about the customs and lifestyle of the Turks before the travel. It was the completely unknown world to the Byzantines with an absolutely different mentality, way of life and mode of thinking. Zemarh’s diplomatic mission was described by Menander Protector who was a contemporary of Zemarh, historian and politician, and who knew the Byzantine court ceremonies and all diplomatic nuances. Obviously, the historian used in his work the protocols and reports of the embassy. Description of the Zemarh’s journey to the southern Altai, preserved in fragments of the Menander’s «History», provides us with a complete picture of how the Romans perceived the Turks.

35-60

Authors: Mirgaleev I.M., Paşaoğlu D.D.

The article reviews the manuscript book of Abdulgaffar Qirimi by the name of «Umdet ul-Ahbar» («The Support of Communications»). This work is written in Ottoman language according to the tradition of Ottoman historical writings. Authors of the article briefly recount Abdulgaffar Qirimi’s information contained in his work and dedicated to Genghis Khan, the Golden Horde, and the Crimean Khanate. Recently in Kazan have been published the facsimile and transcription of this work. Therefore, the authors decided to introduce into scholarly circulation the Russian summary of this work (the work being translated into Russian). Using a continuous method, the authors have made an overview of the main political events mentioned in the book. This information will be useful for the specialists studying the history of the Golden Horde and Tatar khanates. The importance of this source is beyond any doubt since Abdulgaffar Qirimi reports many original details and, especially for the 18th century, his information is authentic and based on personal observations. The manuscript book consists of several parts. It contains information about world history, the history of the prophets, the history of the Seljuks and Ottomans. The main part of the work is devoted to the Golden Horde (starting from Genghis Khan and his descendants), Crimean Khanate, Girayids and murzas. Abdulgaffar Qirimi sought to write a history of the descendants of Jochi khan. He used in his book more than 20 historical works. Abdulgaffar Qirimi reports the names of these works and indicates where he got this or that information. At the same time, he had access to the archives of the Crimean Khanate and used his family legends as well as popular traditions. Plenty of space in his work occupy his own observations as of a participant in military campaigns and court life. Although Abdulgaffar Qirimi makes some mistakes, however his work contains a complete history of the Golden Horde. His information concerning khans Berke, Tokhta, Uzbek, Tokhtamysh, and Ulugh Muhammad reflects the «popular version» and is based on oral historiology of the Tatars. Extensive information about the Crimean Khanate and the State structure of khanate are sufficiently original. In addition, a question of the spread of Islam among Tatars is considered in some detail and largely confirmed by other sources.

74-94

Authors: Halperin Ch.J.

This article for the first time in scholarship surveys the contribution of Iurii Vasil’evich Seleznev of Voronezh State University to the study of Rus’-Tatar relations and the Juchid ulus, called the Golden Horde, during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. The article contains analyses of five major monographs written by Seleznev dealing with Rus’-Tatar relations from 1385 to 1434, the composition of the elite of the Juchid ulus, military conflicts between Rus’ and the Horde during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, (with Andrei Olegovich Amel’kin) the history and historical memory of the battle of Kulikovo Field in 1380, and the role of Rus’ princes as members of the Juchid ulus elite. The article identifies the strengths and weaknesses of each monograph. Finally the article attempts for the first time to draw connections among the conclusions of the five monographs. The strength of Seleznev’s work are his equal mastery of the societies on both sides of the Rus’-Tatar border. His employs the Rus’ sources and Russian translations of oriental sources in new and creative ways to extract hard data on previously unposed questions or on questions which have been previously posed but answered subjectively such as the parameters of Rus’ princely trips to the Horde or the frequency of Rus’-Tatar military conflicts. In addition he appreciates the complex evolution of Rus’ literary works such as those about the battle of Kulikovo Field in 1380. Seleznev also approaches questions of social history with an open mind inoculated against nationalist prejudices which would reject out of hand any possibility of Tatar influence on the Rus’ mentality or society. He is sparing in his use of anachronistic and biased terminology toward the Tatars. The weaknesses of his studies include a lack of familiarity with studies of the Mongol Empire and its successor states other than the Juchid ulus in Western languages which by and large precludes comparative analysis and results in an insular presentation of Rus’-Horde relations in isolation from the parallel experience of other sedentary societies subjected to Mongol rule. He has not himself integrated the results of his separate monographs, for example by addressing the contradiction between what must have been the enormous Rus’ expertise about the Horde with the often simplistic pejorative depiction of the Tatars in Rus’ sources. Seleznev had not as yet written a comprehensive study of Rus’-Tatar relations which would encompass the totality of Rus’-Tatar interaction, including for example institutional borrowing. Nevertheless the strengths of his research far outweigh the weaknesses. Seleznev’s ever-growing body of work makes a significant contribution to increasing historical knowledge of medieval Rus’ and the Tatars of the Juchid ulus.

120-134

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M

This article explores the question about the origin of the Golden Horde emirs’ dynasties during the reign of Uzbek and Janibek khan. Based on numerous Venetian, Arabic, Turkish, Persian primary sources the author provides his own version of origin and genealogical relationships of various emirs. Based on a list of emirs of Janibek khan from «Daftar-i Chingiz-name», the author traces the origins of Mogul-buga to Kipchak tribe and the origins of Kutlu buga to Naiman tribe. Author argues that during the reign of Uzbek khan, the Kungirat and Kiyat were the most influential clans. The Kipchak and Nayman were the most influential clans during the reign of Janibek khan. The author considers three-level hierarchy of emirs. The first level includes the emirs – clan rulers in every district (ulus). There were 4 tribes in each ulus. The second level includes the emirs who were the rulers of ulus. After the administrative reform of Uzbek khan, they replaced the Jochids in the political system of the Golden Horde. If formerly the governance of ulus was inherited by one of the Jochids, then during the reign of Uzbek khan emirs were appointed directly from the center. The third level includes four Karachi Beys who were advisers of the khan. The author also examines the origin of Nanguday from Kungirat clan. The author puts forward his own version of a genealogy of Nanguday. Additionally, this article contains the author’s assumptions about biography of Isatay Kiyat and Isa Uysun. According to these assumptions, Isatay Kiyat can be identified with well-known Gourgen Isa. And Isa Uysun, in turn, can be identified with the brother of Tuluk Timur, who was a governor of the Crimea in the era of Uzbek khan.

147-171

Authors: Nadyrova Kh.G.

The Kazan Khanate has evolved over a century. However, during this period, the formation of its urban planning culture was based on the traditions of the Golden Horde, which was the materialization of the attitudes of the society and the State toward the form of cities and settlements with complexes of buildings and structures. Achievements of urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate was largely manifested in its capital – Kazan.The author used a synergetic approach or complexity theory of the cities, according to which the city is investigated as a holistic and open system. It is organized hierarchically with interconnected mega-, media- and micro-levels and is capable of self-organization and development.Spatial organization of the Kazan Khanate was at the mega-level. The value of this level in the system of the city manifested itself in the location of Kazan on the territory of the khanate, connections with cities in other states and with centers of uluses of the khanate. Media level was formed by architectural-spatial structure and planning structure together with its elements: landscape, communication frame, large architectural complexes. Micro-level included separate religious, memorial, public, residential buildings and household constructions.Changes at each of these levels led to changes in the complicated system rectilinearly and unpredictably. In accordance with the theory of the complexity of cities, the urban system is changed by applying the means of influence (development mechanisms) into hierarchical levels. At the media level, these funds were laws and decrees that regulate construction, traditional principles and methods of construction of various ethno-social groups, medieval towns, etc. Mechanisms of development on the mega-level were: laws and decrees of the khans, military pressure of the neighboring states, recognition or denial of the rights of various ethnic groups within the khanate on the traditional ethnic areas, etc. Urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate as a system in the period from 1445 to 1552, passed through several phases of development: formation after the collapse of the Golden Horde; development in the state of unstable equilibrium under conditions of confrontation with the Moscow State and the Nogai Horde; chaos and death when the Russian State defeated the khanate and Kazan. Application of the synergetic approach in the research made it possible to trace the features of the development of urban planning culture of the Kazan Khanate.

191-225

Authors: Ponomarev A.L.

The death of the Crimean khan Haij Garey on 25 August 1466 was followed by two months of the political turmoil. Sons of the late ruler, Mengli Garey and Nur Dawlat, were two pretenders well-known to the historians. But numismatic material and newly found archival documents prove that there was one more claimant khan. He was the protege of the Shirin bek Mamak and the copper puls of Caffa with the forked tamga testify that the Genoeses were inclined to accept his supremacy. The said heraldic symbol didn’t belong to Garey khans and it was never more used for the coins of Caffa or the khanate after 1441, when Tartar beks elected Haji Garey to be their lord. These puls were the fractional currency that became necessary after there had happened the monetary reform in the khanate and those old silver dangs started to circulate side by side with a new silver denomination – aqcha. The author has discovered that these puls have die links with aqcha coins of Nur Dawlat and moreover he has found that the third «Emperor» had been mentioned in the unpublished accounts of the Genoese treasury, composed in September and October 1466. The shape of his tamga as well the steady political predilections of the Shirin beks demonstrate his kinship with Ulugh Muhammad. The name of this previously unbeknown Crimean khan, who became next year the khan of the Kazan khanate, was Ibrahim. The name of this khan is written on those coins which were earlier attributed to the Siberian khan Ibrahim (Ibak) without real, only on far-fetched and untutored grounds.

243-252

Authors: Ismagilova M.R., Shagaviev D.A.

The proposed excerpt of theological work is the translation of the first chapter of «Qalandar-name», supplemented by comments. This is the first edition of chapter from the medieval theological work written in the Golden Horde during the active Islamization of its population, during the times of great Khans – Muhammad Uzbek and Janibek. Its author, Abu Bakr Qalandar, was a native of the city of Aksaray (in modern Turkey), Sufi, great scholar, imam of a mosque in the city of Stary Krym. «Qalandar-name» is an encyclopedic work on Islamic matters and Sufism that begins with a traditional intonation typical for the works of Muslim authors, especially for compilers of theological writings. In this chapter entitled «Tawhid» (monotheism), Abu Bakr Qalandar speaks about beautiful names of the Almighty, about his creative work (comparing it with the jewelry craftsmanship), about heaven and hell, a small (world of sagri) and the highest (world of kibriya) worlds. D. Shagivaleev who wrote commentaries on the first chapter, supplied the text with verses, to which, according to him, Abu Bakr made allusions. Analysis of the work of Abu Bakr Qalandar reveals that the author of this source was an educated man of his time. In this chapter, Abu Bakr reports about the basic concepts of Islam. The authors plan to publish subsequent chapters of this work in the next issues.

262-264

Authors: Cossuto G.

In September 2013, an interesting International Symposium regarding the Turkish Cultural Legacy in Dobruja, the historical country today divided between Romania and Bulgaria, was held in the halls of the National History and Archaeology Museum of Constanta (Romania). An overview of the Proceedings of the Symposium edited by Tahsin Gemil, Gabriel Custurea, Delia R. Cornea is presented in the article (see: Moştenirea culturală turcă în Dobrogea: simpozion internaţional: Constanţa, 24 septembrie, 2013 / referenți ştiințifici: prof. univ. dr. Tasin Gemil, dr. Gabriel Custurea; coord.: prof. univ. dr. Tasin Gemil, dr. Gabriel Custurea, dr. Delia Roxana Cornea. Bucureşti: Top Form, 2013.

4-21

Authors: Khakimov R.S.

The article deals with the heterogeneity of historical time and space, which affects the understanding of social processes. This understanding contributes to periodization of social processes not in chronological order but according to the semantic division of historical phases. From a historical standpoint, space appears as a structured field in ethnic, economic and administrative sense. Despite the constant social changes, structural and cultural invariants are preserved in their previous form. These invariants are clearly seen in the example of nomadic empires of Eurasia, from the Golden Horde – until the Russian Empire.

33-42

Authors: Sabitov Zh.M.

Polymorphism of Y-chromosome is an interdisciplinary science which aims to answer historical questions related to the peoples’ ethnogenesis on the basis of population genetic research . Scientific research of Y-chromosome polymorphism began at the end of 1990s. Studies of Y-chromosome polymorphism represent only part of population genetic researches. In 2002 there was introduced a single standard regarding SNP-tree mutations and names haplogroups (consortium of Y-chromosome). Prior to this there was no less than 5 different classifications haplogroups. About this time, the National Genographic Project have been started, which purpose was to explore all the world populations by STR (short tandem repeats) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) mutations of Y-chromosome. The basis is the principle of geographical residence. The results of research of the participants of this project resulted in hundreds of articles on the ethnogenesis of different nations of the earth published in journals specialized in population genetics, mainly in the English. In this article, the author presents his view on the methodological problems related to establishing of new application of historical science (the study of polymorphism of the Y-chromosome). The article contains descriptions and examples of faulty research and methodological mistakes. The author also addressed the issue of historiography of the study of the ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples of Eurasia and methods of population genetics identifying the tools and methods for the study of Y-chromosome polymorphism. This article describes the methods of population genetics such as cluster analysis, phylogenetic networks, multidimensional scaling, calculation of “genetic” distances, TMRCA.

64-74

Authors: Kramarovsky M.G.

The article examines the evidence of Arab Sheik Ibn Battuta concerning the peculiarities of Islam consolidation in the urban environment of the Golden Horde. The main observations of Ibn Battuta based on personal communication with the neophytes of Islamic communities. These observations provide information on the diffusion of Sufism and on the consolidation of Hanafi teaching as the leading doctrine. Ibn Battuta information represents a valuable historical source for the history of Islam in the Golden Horde.

79-100

Authors: Muminov A.K.

Among the more than thirty works written in the genre of historical and biographical literature “Tabaqat al-hanafiya”, the work by Mahmud ibn Sulayman al-Kafawi holds a special place, since in this work al-Kafawi first used the productive approach collecting and organizing the chains of tradition transmitters in schools (‘an‘ana, silsila, isnad) with the aim to show the historical evolution of the Hanafite madhhab. This valuable source, “Kata’ib A‘lam al-Akhyar”, has not been published previously. We decided to revise the old views concerning the activity of al-Kafawi on the compiling and editing his work. The following new sources were detected and processed: 50 copies of the work by al-Kafawi, preserved in Turkey, Western Countries, and Central Asia. These copies of Kata’ib were important for us since they allowed to discover the three sources for the biography of al-Kafawi. Their data made it possible to establish that the work of al-Kafavi on the compiling of “Kata’ib A‘lam al-Akhyar” consisted of two phases: 1) the preparation of the book (jam‘, ta’lif) was done by al-Kafawi in 983–985 A.H.; and 2) the editing (tahrir) was the work of his pupil Muslih al-Din Mustafa ibn al-Hasan al-‘Arifi al-Sinubi (d. 1018/1609–10). In the editor’s part of the work we can see the editor’s tendency towards Sufism. This has allowed us to conclude that al-Kafawi was a native of the Golden Horde and could collect rich materials on its history.

119-122

Authors: Zaytsev I.V.

This note deals with the term Tabin occurred in the Western Russian translation of the letter of the Golden Horde Khan Murtaza to the Polish king Kazimir (August 1484). The author believes that the word is Chaghataid تابين which means “the servant”. Tabin was a kind of military rank, the owner of which was close to a Khan, and served him as an adjutant or a page. We can assume the existence of such special elite military page corps at the court of Golden Horde khans, just as they existed in contemporary Timurid states.

128-162

Authors: Ponomarev A.L.

The death of the Crimean khan Haji Giray on 25 August 1466 was followed by two months of the political turmoil. Sons of the late ruler, Mengli Giray and Nur Dawlat, were two pretenders well-known to the historians. But numismatic material and newly found archival documents prove that there was one more claimant khan. He was the protege of the Shirin bek Mamak and the copper puls of Caffa with the forked tamga testify that the Genoeses were inclined to accept his supremacy. The said heraldic symbol didn’t belong to Giray khans and it was never more used for the coins of Caffa or the khanate after 1441, when Tartar beks elected Haji Giray to be their lord. These puls were the fractional currency that became necessary after there had happened the monetary reform in the khanate and those old silver dangs started to circulate side by side with a new silver denomination – aqcha. The author has discovered that these puls have die links with aqche coins of Nur Dawlat and moreover he has found that the third «Emperor» had been mentioned in the unpublished accounts of the Genoese treasury, composed in September and October 1466. The shape of his tamga as well the steady political predilections of the Shirin beks demonstrate his kinship with Ulugh Muhammad. The name of this previously unbeknown Crimean khan, who became next year the khan of the Kazan khanate, was Ibrahim. The name of this khan is written on those coins which were earlier attributed to the Siberian khan Ibrahim (Ibak) without real, only on far-fetched and untutored grounds.

174-189

Authors: Kovács S.

The Cumans appeared in Eastern Europe in the second half of the 11th century. In the first part of my study, I present a brief survey of the Cuman attacks against the Byzantine Empire until 1091. In 1091 they fought along the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnénos (1081–1118) against the Pechenegs. In the battle of Lebunion, Alexios and his Cuman allies decisively defeated the Pechenegs. The Pechenegs defeated at the Battle of Lebunion lived at that time in the region Paristrion on Byzantine side of the Danube. In the same year, the Cumans attacked the Hungarian Kingdom as well. The purpose of this study is to search for an answer to the three questions: Who invited the Cumans into the Byzantine Empire? What was the role of the Cumans in the battle of Lebunion in which the Byzantines achieved a great victory over the Pechenegs? Could the Cumans be identical with the nomads who attacked the Hungarian Kingdom in the same year?

212-220

Authors: Sidorovich S.V.

The paper discusses the recently published translation of the first few chapters of the Manchu version of the dynastical history Yuanshi – “Dai Yuan guruni Suduri”. The author analyzes the most typical mistakes involving parallel passages from the Chinese version of the chronicle provided with author’s translation and commentary. To avoid typical mistakes in the future work, the author offers to verify difficult fragments with the original source in Chinese and offers recommendations for the use of specialized literature.