Forestry Ideas

289–292

Authors: Zheko Radev

Lipids are main components of bee pollen grains, and vary among different pollen taxa. The objective of this study was to determine the lipid content in pollen of 20 popular bee plants and the impact of lipids to honey bees. The analysis showed, that the percentage of the total lipid content in the examined bee pollen ranged from 0.87 % for Zea mays L. to 13.6 % for that of Echinops ritro L., and the average was 3.91 %. The average level of lipids for the entomophilous plants was 4.20 % and 1.31 % for anemophilous, for Asteraceae was 5.42 % and 1.88 % for Fabaceae. The average weight of one hundred worker bees fed on pollen from Z. mays was 8208.2 mg, whereas it was 9882.2 mg for the bees fed on pollen from E. ritro. The weight of bees that consumed pollen with higher lipid content is higher compared to that consumed pollen with lower lipid content.

298–308

Authors: Gradimir Gruychev

Modern agriculture often leads to a reduction in small game species and loss of biodiversity. The study area includes MG-14 (35 T) square of the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). The density of hares during the study period varied between 0.7–2.7 ind./km2. Their number reported in 2014–2015 is significantly higher than in the other years. In 2018, the lowest hare density was reported in the study area. Most were counted in May. The density of hares was positively related to habitat diversity and negatively to Wild cat density.

318–331

Authors: Neda Amiri(1)* and Soleiman Mohammadi Limaei(1,2)

The aim of this study was to estimate the aboveground carbon sequestration and the amount of CO2 emissions at logging operation in Hyrcanian forests of Iran. Required data, such as forest standing stock, annual growth increment of trees, wood density and timber harvesting, were collected from secondary sources. Allometric equation was used for estimating the carbon sequestration. The amount of CO2 emission was calculated. Results showed that the annual growth per hectare and the amount of carbon sequestration per growth were 3.37 m3·yr-1 and 1.14 t·ha-1, respectively. Results also indicated that the value of aboveground sequestrated carbon and its net present value were 71,217.63 (10,000 IRR∙ha-1) and 12,668.28 (10,000 IRR∙ha-1), respectively. Finally, the amount of carbon emission per hectare was calculated, as it was 0.01078 t∙h-1 per year. The results of emission and carbon sequestration per hectare of the forest show that not only logging per hectare of forest will eliminate annual carbon sequestration, but also leads to an increase in CO2 into the atmosphere due to harvest activity.

343–353

Authors: Youlin Tepeliev(1), Radka Koleva(1)*, and Ventzeslav Dimitrov(2)

The high-resolution layers (HRLs) are Pan-European land cover datasets aimed at monitoring soil sealing (imperviousness, forest, grasslands, wetness and water, and small woody features. The main purpose of this article is to present the methodology and results from verification of two Forest HRL products for the 2015 reference year for Bulgarian territory: Dominant Leaf Type (DLT) and Tree Cover Density (TCD). The verification task aims at identifying systematic classification errors and the results are supposed to be used for improvement in future product updates. Qualitative approach for assessment of the HRL quality is applied in two steps, called General overview of data quality and Look-and-feel verification. The latter is performed within dedicated strata through non-random sampling, checking HRLs for omission and commission errors. We show results from a verification at country level based on local expertise and best available in situ data. We also provide comments and recommendations concerning commission and omission strata. Several cases of both of the above types of errors are identified and analysed in the DLT and TCD high resolution layers. Despite of errors found, both DLT and TCD receive a ‘good’ mark, and the same rating prevails in the strata level evaluation.

367–379

Authors: Panagiotis Lattas(1)*, Pavlos Chasilidis(2), Aggeliki Tsakona(3), Natalia Golfinopoulou(4), and Theocharis Zagas(5)

The oak forests in Mediterranean are widespread and dynamic natural ecosystems. For millennia, oak forests have provided vital ecosystem services to humans in the Mediterranean including social, economic and environmental services and goods; however, in parallel, human exploitation has altered their structure. Consequently, targeted management approaches are required to optimize the production. In the current study we analyzed the structural characteristics of the Foloi oak forest (Quercus frainetto) in the wider area of Ancient Olympia, Peloponnese, Greece. An extensive fieldwork was applied in 29 randomly located plots in order to collect dendrometric characteristics of 938 individual trees. The collected data were used to build models for estimating tree age, tree height and canopy length from diameter at breast height (DBH). All models were found to have an adequate fit and provide useful tool for the assessment of site structural and growth characteristics. Furthermore, we present a model for assessing site quality from topographic characteristics such as slope and exposition. Finally, we employed a stand visualization tool to get a graphical representation of the stand structure, which can be used in order to adopt appropriate silvicultural practices. We believe our findings will provide useful tools to forest managers and practitioners for the sustainable management and restoration of oak forests.

396–411

Authors: Sagar Dhakal* and Prem Kumar Khosla

Taxus contorta Griff. is an endangered conifer tree species. It is found in patchy habitats throughout its natural occurrences along with certain altitudinal ranges in the Himalayan region. The present study involves the stand structure, regeneration status and biomass of Taxus species in the Narkanda forest that occupies an area of 11.4 km2 with an altitudinal range of 2400 m to 3000 m a.s.l. in Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh. A total of 24 square plots, each plot of area 0.16 ha, were laid in four main geographical directions (i.e., north, northeast, southwest and southeast) with equal six plots in each slope exposure. The result showed that T. contorta is found only in three slopes (north, northeast and southwest) exposures with the main association of Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle species. The absence of Taxus species occurrences slope exposure (southeast) was dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Based on the results, this study documented that conservation of an endangered species should be done through silvicultural practices for its sustainable regeneration in northern slope exposure. Additionally, the adult tree of T. contorta must be conserved specially for pollination purposes, fertile seed production and dispersion of seeds exposing the open canopy closure through the thinning of common and dominated species. Finally, it is recommended that any kind of human disturbances should be strictly prohibited inside Taxus occurrence forest.

427–435

Authors: Jens Hepper

This study analyses the implementation of forest education in 13 German federal states in combination with the number of applicants for a vocational education in forestry, as well as the number of students at the faculties of forestry in Germany. Obtained results show that establishing the basics of forest didactics and taking into account educational topics beside the classical knowledge of woodland species, furthers the interest in forests and forest professions in general. The number of students in the university can be considered to be a suitable indicator for a good establishment of forest didactics and a general interest in forests, while the number of applicants in vocational education can be considered to be an indicator for a holistic and sustainable approach to forest education, according to this study.

446–458

Authors: Tatyana Fomicheva(1), Alexander Adamovsky(1), Ion Dubovich(1), Yuriy Tunytsya(1), Khrystyna Vasylyshyn(1)*, Anatoliy Deyneka(2), and Maryana Vyniarska(3)

To optimize the use and management of Ukrainian Carpathians forest fund territories, ecological tourism is actively promoted by the government and reflected in the leisure sector. The attention of economists is mainly drawn to the market value of forest areas and forest resources. However, the trend is changing as the non-market values of forests are increasingly assessed and measured. This case study assessed the potential value of ecological tourism development using the contingent valuation method. A total of 235 respondents were interviewed in four regions of Ukraine. The results showed that most visitors to the Ukrainian Carpathians are willing to pay for ecological tourism on these territories. The average value was 35 USD per day in the conditions of organised ecological tourism and 10 USD per day in the conditions of individual ecological tourism on the territories of Ukrainian Carpathians forest fund. The results may justify financial support from the state for the development of ecological tourism and the adoption of relevant regulations. Prospects for it depend on the level of well-being and education of citizens, as well as the distance from the place of residence of the respondents to the territories of Ukrainian Carpathians forest fund. Regarding organised ecological tourism, the prospects for the development depend on certification of tour operators providing services.

470–482

Authors: Ihor F. Buksha, Tetiana S. Pyvovar, Maksym I. Buksha, Volodymyr P. Pasternak*, and Taras I. Buksha

In Ukraine and elsewhere on the planet, study of climate change effects on forests is ofgreat public interest. The study aimed to evaluate climate humidity dynamics in the 21st century according to Vorobiev indicator under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. E-OBS and EURO-CORDEX project climate data were used. Climate humidity indicator by Vorobiev was used to assess the suitability of climatic conditions for forests (suitable conditions are from fresh to wet forest types). In the current climate condition in Ukraine the climate humidity varies from very dry in the south to very wet in the Carpathians. Dry (30 %) and fresh (40.1 %) types dominate. Comparing to 1961–1990, aridity has increased, boundaries of climatic zones shifted by 1 class to the north for the plains of Ukraine and to higher elevation for the Carpathians. In the Forest and the Forest-Steppe zones the fresh climate prevails, wet climate becomes less represented. Climate condition suitable for forests covers about 50 % of the country area. Both scenarios show a further aridity increase and climate zones shift to the north. Under the RCP 4.5, the areas of wet and fresh climate are expected to decrease with substitution by dry climate. In 2040–2060 the area of conditions suitable for forests will decrease to 37 % of the country area, and to 30 % in 2080–2100. Favourable conditions for the forest will remain only in the Carpathians, the western Forest-Steppe and partly in Forest zones. Under the RCP 8.5 scenario, the process of climate aridization will accelerate: dry climate types are expected to dominate. The area suitable for forest conditions will decrease significantly to 30 % in the middle and to 10 % at the end of the century.

496–515

Authors: Pandu Yudha Adi Putra Wirabuana(1)*, Budi Mulyana(1), Alnus Meinata(2), Fahmi Idris(2), and Ronggo Sadono(1)

Understanding the essential contribution of community forests for industrial development or climate change mitigation principally requires the accurate measurement of merchantable wood and aboveground biomass. However, the quantification of those parameters using the destructive method requires high cost and time consuming. To anticipate these constraints, allometric equations development has a potential contribution to facilitate a more efficient estimation of wood and biomass production without disturbing forest regeneration capacity. Therefore, this study aimed to develop allometric equations for quantifying merchantable wood and aboveground biomass of community forest tree species. The destructive sampling was carried out on 45 trees from three species (15 trees each), namely Swietenia macrophylla King, Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby et J.W.Grimes, and Tectona grandis L.f. Furthermore, three general allometric equations were examined using some predictor variables, i.e. diameter at breast height (D), quadrat diameter at breast height combined with tree height (D2∙H), as well as D and H separately. The results showed the highest average of merchantable wood and aboveground biomass recorded in S. macrophylla (0.41 ±0.10 m3; 0.33 ±0.07 t), followed by T. grandis (0.20 ±0.07 m3; 0.18 ±0.06 t) and F. moluccana (0.16 ±0.05 m3; 0.06 ±0.02 t). Meanwhile, the relative contribution of foliage biomass to total aboveground biomass gradually declined along with the increasing diameter classes. In contrast, a fluctuating trend was observed in the stem and branch. Also, equation ln Y = lna + b∙lnD was best in quantifying the wood and biomass. The addition of H as a predictor variable in the equations did not show a meaningful influence to increase accuracy estimation in the species. Based on these results, it was concluded that the development of allometric equations was reliable to facilitate more efficient estimation of merchantable wood and aboveground biomass for community forest tree species with over 95 % accuracy.

3-18

Authors: Vasyl Gumeniuk, Dmytrii Holiaka, Olexandr Soshenskiy, and Volodymyr Koren

The study presents the assessment of fire effect produced by surface forest fires on the herbal plants, the possibility of natural forest regeneration and Scots pine stands of the Poliskyi Nature Reserve. Five-year succession of forest herbs following the fire of 2009 was evaluated by analyzing its species’ composition, cоenotic structure, similarity, constancy and dominance of species in the burned area and comparison with similar unburned forest. The consequences for herbal plants mostly depend on the type and intensity of a wildfire. The response of the herbal layer to fire factor varies from small revertible short-term changes to degradation or even complete distinction. Surface fires stimulate emergence of Scots pine regeneration. On stand level, fires cause the deterioration of trees’ health and the reduction of stand growth. The mathematical model for severity of fire and tree health was developed. Key words: fire severity, natural regeneration, post

29-45

Authors: Dmitry A. Danilov and Dmitry A. Zaytsev

We studied the influence of average temperatures and precipitation of the growing season on the formation of macrostructural elements of radial growth in Scots pine and Norway spruce stands of Leningrad region located in the boreal zone of the European part of Russia. Denroclimatic studies were carried out using the results of wood samples analysis from forest stands on two-layer soils collected during 60 years. The digitized parameters of wood samples were processed in a GIS system, which made it possible to obtain an array of generalized dendrochronologies. A rank correlation analysis of the data obtained was carried out using the Spearman’s test. To simulate the combined effect of the amount of precipitation and average temperatures on the formation of the structural elements of radial growth, the method of the quadratic function was used. Depending on the composition of a stand, there was a different response to the selected meteorological factors during the study period. In pine stands, the effect of the average temperature of the growing season on the amount of annual radial growth was greater than in spruce stands. In spruce and pine stands with the participation of deciduous species, the structural elements of wood were more meteosensitive. The use of the quadratic function method made it possible to assess the combined effect of the total precipitation and average temperature of the growing season on the elements of radial growth of pine and spruce in the stands under study over the period of the experiment. Stands with various proportions of pine predominantly responded in the same way to changes in external factors associated with the climatic features of the region, which indicates the priority of their use in dendrochronological studies.

59-67

Authors: Alexey Andreychev

A new method of studying the activity of European mole Talpa europaea (Linnaeus, 1758) with use of digital portable voice recorders is developed. European mole demonstrates polyphasic activity pattern – three peaks of activity alternate three peaks of relative rest. Moles are found to have activity peaks from 23:00 to 3:00 h, from 6:00 to 9:00 h and from 15:00 to 18:00 h, and three periods of rest: from 3:00 to 6:00 h, from 9:00 to 15:00 h and from 18:00 to 23:00 h. Mole’s rest is relative since animals show low activity during periods of rest. Average daily interval between mole passes is 2.5 h. Duration of audibility of continuous single European mole pass by the microphone varies from 11 to 120 seconds. On average, it is 37.5 seconds.

74-88

Authors: Kateryna Myronchuk, Yaroslav Henyk, and Marta Kurnytska

Object of the study are hedgerows in settlements of Ukrainian Bukovynian Carpathian region (Chernivtsi region of Ukraine). The species and quality composition, spatial, age and ecological structure and ornamental value of hedges. The formation of hedges as an element of landscaping the urban ecosystems of the Ukrainian Bukovynian Carpathian region occurred due to the influence of a number of objective (natural and anthropogenic) and subjective factors (traditions, socio-economic conditions and long-term plans for the development of the region, financing of activities for the formation and care of plantings in green spaces). The dendroflora of hedges of urban areas is represented by 32 species of woody plants from 24 genera and 15 families. Carpinus betulus L., Buxus sempervirens L., Cornus alba (L.) Opiz. and Ligustrum vulgare L. are most often used to form hedges. The vast majority of hedges is formed from one species (Chernivtsi – 98.3 %, other towns and villages – 71.1 %), and they are mainly single-row (Chernivtsi – 83.8 %, other towns – 58.2 %, villages – 70.2 %). In the settlements of the region, trimmed hedges predominate (Chernivtsi – 92.1 %, other towns and villages – 75.5 %). Most hedges are mean-height hedges (Chernivtsi – 65.8 %, other towns and villages – 66.9 %). For the formation of a curb hedge, Sріraea media Schmidt., Buxus sempervirens, Ligustrum vulgare are most often used. For first time, comprehensive studies of hedges in the settlements of Chernivtsi region of Ukraine (Bukovynian Carpathian region) were carried out according to their species composition, system, age and environmental structure, height and constitution. The features of functioning in urban ecosystems are established. A comprehensive assessment was made regarding the quality status and ornamental value of hedges in the green zones.

101-113

Authors: Salomo Mbai, Epson Ndawedapo Noses, and Yonas Tesfamariam Bahta

Analysing and understanding the timber sector export performance is essential for value chain role players to formulate strategies and policies to enhance the competitive export position and ensure forest sustainability. This study’s main objective was to measure the export competitiveness of the Namibian timber (HS440799, HS4401, HS4402, and HS4403) and assess its implication for Forestry using secondary data (2001–2018), Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA), and Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage indices (RSCA). The result shows that Namibia had a revealed comparative advantage for 17 years; however, all below one (except for commodity HS4402 from 2010–2018) means that Namibia timber exports are not internationally competitive. Comparing the four categories of timber, in 2007, the sub-sector (HS4402) recorded the lowest RCA (0.00001) and the lowest RSCA (0.99998) for timber (HS4402) in 2007, the same year. On the other hand, the same categories of timber (HS4402) score the highest RCA with a value of 2.73 in 2015 and the highest RSCA (0.46) for timber (HS4402) in the same year compared to the other categories of timber. RSCA indices results for all commodities show that Namibia’s timber exports are not competitive for the study period. Timber’s comparative export pattern heavily depends on export volumes and values of timber exports. Timber export competitiveness is not sustainable, given the heavy dependence on natural forests. Namibia should re-structure timber harvesting protocols to include replacement or replanting every tree species harvested for timber production to ensure timber and forest sustainability. The country’s timber export sub-sector should focus more on adding value to timber than exporting to improved competitiveness. Further, the government should regulate the harvested wood and protect over-grazing, to promote timber and forest resources’ sustainable utilization.

119-127

Authors: Gradimir Gruychev

The study area is a low mountain; nevertheless it has substantial biodiversity, due to its specific location, xerothermic vegetation and positive average monthly temperatures. The study was conducted in the period 2014-2020. It determinates 35 percent of the avifauna and 58 percent of the breeding birds of Sakar Mountain. This study reports two new species for the area. It informs about 89 species assigned to a specific breeding category. Seven species assigned to a breeding category are new to the quadrant and have not been reported by previous studies. The breeding density of 13 bird species was established. The density decreases in two common birds in study area.

136-144

Authors: Panagiotis Michopoulos and Alexandra Solomou

The relations and the statistical comparisons of the available micronutrients Mn, Zn, Cu and Fe (DTPA extractable) were examined in alkaline soils of three forest ecosystems, i.e. pine, fir and maquis forest. Through a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) it was found that Mn and Zn had identical dependence on soil parameters. Both concentrations of these metals had negative relationship with pH, percentage of CaCO3 and positive one with the concentrations of organic C, N and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) values. With the exception of CaCO3, Fe had the same dependence. Copper had a negative relation with CaCO3 and a positive one only with clay content and not with the organic carbon as would be expected. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that the soil under fir had the highest concentrations of Mn probably due to the lowest pH values and CaCO3 percentages. The soil in the maquis plot had the lowest concentrations of Zn and Fe because of the highest pH and lowest amount of organic C. Despite the lowest amount of organic C, the soil in the maquis plot had the highest concentration of Cu because of the nature of parent material.

157-168

Authors: Anzhela Dzyba

The paper considers the introduction of Pinus strobus L. to the Ukrainian Polissya for 200 years. The purpose of the study was to conduct an inventory of P. strobus in protected territories of the Ukrainian Polissya and to analyze its distribution, stand age structure, regeneration patterns, and application in different types of plantings. The study covers 26 protected man-made objects and natural areas and objects (botanical garden, 3 dendrological parks, 6 parks-monuments of landscape art, 8 natural monuments, 3 national natural parks, regional landscape park, 3 reserves, protected tract) in Ukrainian Polissya (Volyn, Rivne, Zhytomyr, Chernihiv, Khmelnytsky regions). The age of Pinus strobus ranges from 35 to more than 200 years. In the protected areas grow 120- to 200-year-old ancient Pinus strobus trees, with a number of its specimens ranging from 1 to 16. In 80 % of protected entities, Pinus strobus was represented by one specimen as a solitary or in groups mainly mixed with Pinus sylvestris L.; in 5 objects Pinus strobus grows in pure and mixed plantations of natural monuments. The condition of plants in 19 objects is good, in 5 - satisfactory, in two - unsatisfactory (harmed by the pest Pineus strobi Htg.). By self-seeding, P. strobus regenerated on 24 % of the territories of nature-protection entities; in one entity it has naturalized. It is proposed to use the best specimens of Pinus strobus as genetic material for further application in forestry and park gardening.

182-194

Authors: Heorhiy H. Hrynyk, Leonid S. Osadchuk, Liubov M. Kondratiuk, Olena M. Hrynyk, Volodymyr M. Gryb, Victoriia I. Melnyk, and Artur F. Likhanov

The task of the study is to establish and justify the required amount of sawn timber, which must be measured to determine the conformity of the entire batch of sawn wood to the specified size on the basis of statistical processing of a sample of sawn timber from the total batch. It is established that the batch is homogeneous in width and thickness, and differs in length of a sawn timber. The values of variation coefficients for length of a sawn timber are much lower than similar values for thickness and width. Given the nature of the grouping of sawn timber particles around the central stage in terms of thickness, width and length, it can be argued that the samples are similar. Student’s t-test was used at the p-level to check the difference between the mean values of individual samples. Measurement error (ME) for almost all indicators of the studied sawn timber is in the range of 0.1-5.0 %, which indicates that the experiment was performed with sufficient accuracy. In fact, 144 units of lumber were selected from 5 packages, which is more than 125 of the minimum required to establish the batch conformity of size and quality characteristics. Using the values of SE, ME and SD, calculated for individual samples, it was found that to correctly determine the deviations, including measurement accuracy and appropriate moisture content errors, it is sufficient to use from each individual sample no more 24 pieces of the appropriate sawn timber types. Using the recommendations for checking the conformity of sample to acceptable quality level for the total batch of a sawn timber, which was 2207 pcs in 5 packages, was confirmed the sufficiency of usage of the sample of 125 pieces from 5 packages.

210-232

Authors: Christine Wulandari, Samsul Bakri, Melya Riniarti, and Supriadi Supriadi

Community Forestry Program in Indonesia (called HKm: Hutan Kemasyarakatan) as the scheme for recovering forest degradation from encroachment has been operating for 13 years now, but until nowadays there is no available guideline for fostering its sustainability (SUST). HKm Authority, however, still have 22-24 years remain to foster the program before the scheme due. It is in needing both economic and tree biodiversity indicators of every HKm’s member land as the guidance for sustaining the program. The income as the economic indicator itself is commonly affected by the endogenous and exogenous variables. This research aimed at determining the roles of: (i) endogenous and exogenous variables on income agroforestry yield (INCM), (ii) INCM on tree biodiversity performance (BIODV), and (iii) BIODV on the HKm’s SUST. Data collected by interviewing 230 members of HKm Jaya Lestari located in Way Kanan Regency-Lampung, Indonesia in February-May 2018. These HKm members consisted of four ethnic groups which the two are as the native (Semendonese and Lampungese) that more adaptive to agroforestry cultivation, whereas the remains (Javanese and Sundanese) are the offspring of people moved from Java Island under colonization program by Dutch Administration since 1905. We employed Ordinary Least Square regression postulate model to investigate the first purpose and Loglinear Regression to examine the second and the third purposes. Minitab Version 16 software was applied for the models’ goodness-fits test and parameter optimization at 90 and 95% confident level. The research suggests: (i) endogenous variables with positive effect on INCM were the family size, participation in extension activities, land holding acreage, the tribes whose Sundanese and Semendonese were higher than Javanese, and with negative effect was the land elevation; whereas the exogenous variable affected negatively the rural facility construction and nursery demonstration plot activities; (ii) the higher INCM the higher BIODV, but (iii) the better BIODV the lower SUST will be. For the sake of pursuing SUST, it recommends to continue fostering HKm members by managing the endogenous variables in order to rise up INCM, and then multiply BIODV as well as to broaden HKm members’ awareness on voluntary planting some wooden trees that have been adaptive or endemic at local region such as iron wood (Fagraea fragrans Roxb), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl), and Shorea javanica.

245-255

Authors: Silvena Boteva, Anelia Kenarova, Viktoriya Kancheva, Michaella Aleksova, Roumen Dimitrov, and Galina Radeva

Heavy metal pollution of soils may change their chemical and microbiological status. Changes in the function of decomposer communities may cause disruption in soil nutrient cycling and primary productivity of an ecosystem. In the present study, bacterial capacity to utilize different carbon substrates under heavy metal stress was evaluated by using community level physiological profiling technique and Biolog EcoPlate™ method. Soil samples were taken from the vicinity of mine Chelopech along Cu gradient and co-pollutants Zn and Pb. Soil texture was classified as loam, soil pH was defined as acidic, and soils were determined as well nutrient abundant. Soil concentrations of Cu, Zn and Pb varied in the range of 51-860 mg.kg-1, 44-180 mg.kg-1 and 31-175 mg.kg-1, respectively. Both, the capacity of impacted bacterial communities to utilize organic carbon substances and bacterial functional diversity decreased under the heavy metal stress. Bacteria from un-polluted soils preferentially utilized carbohydrates and polymers, whereas the heavy metal stressed bacterial communities preferentially used proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic carboxylic acids. The highest levels of adverse impacts were recorded both at seriously polluted soil, and on the utilization of amines and carbohydrates. Local variability of soil properties might modify the effects of heavy metals. It can be concluded that the EcoPlate™ method can be used to evaluate community functional variability in relation to different levels of heavy metal stress, as statistically significant results have been obtained.

271-279

Authors: Olena Demchenko

Under Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine, 11 Viburnum species and 5 cultivars of different geographical origin are cultivated. The vast majority of species is property of a limited number of botanical gardens. There is no information about the ecological properties of most of the introduced taxa of genus Viburnum L. in condition of the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine. Therefore, the study of the ecological properties of various species of this genus under these conditions is relevant. The purpose of the study is a comparative analysis of the ecological properties of species belonging to the genus Viburnum L. in relation to the formation of their taxonomic composition in collections and rational use in greening and gardening. The following ecological indicators of the species were investigated: the duration of the dormant period, winter hardiness, drought resistance and water retention capacity. It was established that the winter hardiness of the species is satisfactory and does not depend on the duration of the period of deep dormancy. Monitoring the winter hardiness of uneven-aged plants of the same species made it possible to trace the change in resistance in ontogenesis. An increase in winter hardiness in all species is observed during the transition from juvenile to mature state, which is reflected by the value of the winter hardiness coefficient. Drought resistance of most species is high, exceptions are Viburnum lantana Aureum' and Viburnum burejaeticum Rgl. et Herd. Water retention is higher in evergreen species and resistance to dehydration is higher in V. opulus L. and V. rufidulum Raf. The studied species are promising and quite suitable for further implementation under Right-bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine.

277-288

Authors: Oleksandr V. Sovakov, Maria O. Sovakova, Oleksandr S. Ostapchuk, Dmytro I. Bidolakh, Svitlana M. Pidkhovna, and Oleg I. Kytaiev

Linden species (Tilia spp.) are the most spread woody species in the street side plantings in Kyiv. It is determined that all linden species that grow along streets or sidewalks are in a poor state. The visual signs of scorch varied from severe to minimal damages (leaves collected in different parts of city). The control samples were collected in the conditions with minimal level of anthropogenic pressure (stands in the city outskirts). These were healthy leaves, without any visual signs of biotic or abiotic damages. In the leaves with maximal level of necrosis and chlorosis damages (to 90 % of leaf blade area) we found very high level of sodium ions and minimal level of potassium ions. Consequently, there is ionic imbalance in plant tissues – potassium ions are substituted for sodium ions. These chemical elements are monovalent and in the process of nutrient uptake the plant does not differentiate them. Accumulation of Na+ ions and decrease of К+ ions is typical to all the linden species growing along streets. Little-leaf linden is the most susceptible to salt contamination; however, it is an aboriginal species in Kyiv city conditions. Absence of biotic origin of necrosis and chlorosis on linden leaves is confirmed by luminescent analysis of photosynthetic apparatus – photo- and thermoinduction of chlorophyll fluorescence. Consequently, the results of conducted research allow to state that lindens are not suitable for growing in salt contaminated soils. In anthropogenically transformed (urban) conditions it is reasonable to select salt-tolerant wood species.

302-325

Authors: Teodora Teofilova and Nikolay Kodzhabashev

The paper presents results of the first study on the ground beetle fauna in the region of the Zlatiya Plateau. It aimed at clarifying the species composition and analyzing the zoogeographical structure of the carabid fauna followed by a subsequent assessment of the environmental trends and the extent of anthropogenic impact. Field work was carried out in the period March – October 2008. Ground beetles were collected with pitfall traps in 8 sampling sites representing the differ- ent types of habitats in the area. A total of 6598 adult carabid specimens were captured. They belonged to 138 species, 49 genera, and 20 tribes, representing almost 19 % of the species, 39 % of the genera and 56 % of the tribes included in the list of carabids of Bulgaria. The most species-rich was the genus Harpalus (25 species), followed by the genera Amara (14 species), Ophonus (13 species) and Pterostichus (11 species). The most abundant in specimens was the genus Harpalus (2461 ex.). The most abundant species were: Harpalus tardus (908 ex.), Harpalus rufipes (829 ex.), Calathus fuscipes (567 ex.), Brachinus crepitans (414 ex.), Pterostichus melas (355 ex.), Abax carinatus (348 ex.), Ophonus laticollis (199 ex.), Anchomenus dorsalis (168 ex.), Carabus coriaceus (168 ex.). For Ophonus convexicollis, а second certain location for Bulgaria was reported. Six species were new for the whole Bulgarian Danubian Plain: Leistus ferrugineus, Amara sabulosa, Harpalus melancholicus, Pangus scaritides, Microlestes fulvibasis, Microlestes minutulus. Remarkably, 120 species were new for the Western Danubian Plain, where the studied site is located. Most of the species were European-Neareastern (18 %), European and Central Asian (18 %), and Palearctic (12 %).

341-354

Authors: Arshad Ali, Marek Vach, and Syed Hassan Ahmed

This article targets current situation of Restriction of Hazards Substances (RoHS), Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH), Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment’s (WEEE) and Responsible Minerals Initiative (RMI) compliance and management in developing countries. The study focus is on adaptation challenges and related environmental protection issues within Pakistan. The emphasis is on how European Union (EU) and other global legislation can mitigate the environmental challenges triggered by EEE (Electrical and Electronic Equipment’s) products if EU practices are considered as a role model for developing countries. The aim of this study is threefold: a) to review the challenges in adaptation of environmental legislation already in place in EU and other countries related to electronic industry; b) to review the existing practices related to EEE’s related environmental and human health hazards within Pakistan; and c) to discuss the recommendations on how the legislations if adopted in a developing countries like Pakistan can minimize the adverse influence of EEE’s on the environment and human health and support national development cause. The study finds that there are huge gaps to reach the optimum level of adequate EEE’s base level management (production) and e-waste recycling. To the best of authors’ knowledge for Pakistan this is the first time a study on adopting key legislations like EU RoHS, EU REACH, and The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform 2010 has been carried out. Similarly, 2019 EEE’s Tsunami (Phthalates invasion) are highlighted for first time for government and policy makers in developing countries like Pakistan. This study recommends that switching to these legislations can be useful to tackle the rapidly growing EEE’s related environmental, public health and other social issues.

366-370

Authors: Boyan Milchev and Valeri Georgiev

Changes in land use practices such as livestock rearing and crop farming are crucially important for conserving biodiversity in the modern world. This study characterizes the shifts in the diet of the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo population in SE Bulgaria mainly as a result of agro-economic changes and depopulation of settlements. The share of predominant prey species in preferred weight classes from urban and open (mainly gallinaceous birds) habitats decreased significantly after the collapse of traditional livestock husbandry and local abandonment of agricultural land. These species were replaced by wetland ones when available and small rodents especially during population eruptions. The Northern white-breasted hedgehog Erinaceus roumanicus and the European hare Lepus europaeus contributed more as prey for Eagle Owls. Other significantly increased replacement prey species in the Eagle owl diet consisted of predatory mammals and birds as well as many smaller species typical of open and wood-shrubby habitats. High proportions of the latter prey groups characterized the annual diets of the studied population after resumption of farming operations and indicated at least temporary food shortages for Eagle Owls. The characteristic direction of diet shifts at the subpopulation level in the particular breeding clusters responded to the agro-economic changes and the landscapes of hunting territories. Despite diet changes, the average prey weight and the food niche breadth of successfully breeding Eagle Owl pairs differed insignificantly at a population level over the time series, except during two years with vole outbreaks.

394-403

Authors: Vasyl Lavnyy, Vasyl G. Mazepа, and Ivan F. Shyshkanynets

The objects of the study were pure and mixed middle-aged beech stands that grow on humid fertile hornbeam-beech forest type conditions on the southern and northern slopes at the altitude of 550–600 m a.s.l. We found a correlative relationship between beech radial increment and climate indices. Average radial increment of beech varies within the limits of 1.71 to 2.41 mm depending on tree composition with the maximum in the mixed stands. The share of early wood and late wood of the annual ring of beech fluctuates within the limits of 83–88 % and 12–17 %, respectively. In the mixed stands that grow on the northern slopes, annual radial increment of beech is maximal. In the mixed and pure forest stands average radial increment of beech on the northern side of the slope compared to the southern side is higher. It has been found that radial increment of the south-facing side of beech trees growing on the southern mountain slope and the north-facing side of them growing on the northern mountain slope is higher in comparison to the opposite side of the trees. Radial increment extremes in many cases are identical with climate indices extremes. In the years of the most intensive solar activity beech radial increment is minimal. Relationship between beech increment and climate indices is stronger in the pure beech stands than it is in the mixed stands. Relationship between beech increment and air temperature as well as precipitation becomes weak in the mixed stands and it is moderate in the pure stands. Beech increment correlates greatly with humidity deficiency, air temperature and precipitation, which is especially marked during the period from 2003 to 2013. Beech wood radial increment correlates closely with air humidity and humidity deficiency both in the pure and in the mixed stands.

416-425

Authors: Lyubka Varbeva, Nasko Iliev, and Milko Milev

The reaction after treatment with selective herbicides was carried out in a nursery plot for production of one-year-old poplar saplings from the type 0/1 from the cultivars ′I-214′ and ′Vernirubens′. Water solutions of the 4 herbicides (H1–H4) with a concentration 5 ml.l-1 and a control variant were tested. Treatments were carried out in five terms: May, June, July, August and September. Final measurements were carried out after the growing season. The estimation of the influence of each herbicide was done after the following indices: survival, height and diameter of the stem; thickness and number of first grade roots; relative moisture of wood of poplar saplings. The results showed that tested herbicides do not influence on the survival of saplings with the exception of a negative influence on cultivar ′Vernirubens′, caused by the herbicide H2. Saplings of cultivar ′I-214′ have faster growth in height than cultivar ′Vernirubens′. Tested cultivars show specific reaction to applied herbicides and best tolerance to H3 (350 g.l-1 Butachlor + 350 g.l-1 Propanil). Herbicides H1 (150 g.l-1 Fluazifop-P-butyl) and H4 (240 g.l-1 Oxyfluorfen) oppress less the growth of saplings at both cultivars, compared to the outlined depressive effect of the herbicide H2 (240 g.l-1 Clethodim). As most suitable was determined the herbicide H3. In the course of production, weed control could be carried out with the help of this herbicide during all phoenophases of the development of saplings.

435-451

Authors: Teodora Teofilova and Nikolay Kodzhabashev

This is the second part of the study representing the first overall assessment of the ground beetle fauna in the region of the Zlatiya plateau. The study aimed at analyzing the ecological structure of the carabid fauna represented by 6598 adult carabid specimens, belonging to 138 species, 49 genera and 20 tribes. The dominant structure was characteristic with the presence of 2 eudominants numbering 26 % of all specimens (Harpalus rufipes and Harpalus tardus), 4 dominants (26 %), 1 subdominant (3 %), 17 recedents (27 %) and 114 subrecedents (18 %). The analysis of the life forms showed only a slight predominance of the zoophages (71 species; 52 %) over the mixophytophages (67 species; 48 %). Similar ratio (50: 50 %) is mostly approaching to the typical for the steppe zones, for the orchards from the forest-steppe zones, and for the vast deforested territories across Europe. Humidity preferences analysis showed the larger share of the mesoxerophilous carabids. The prevalence of the macropterous carabids reflected their higher mobility and adaptiveness.

471-484

Authors: Petro Lakyda, Svitlana Sytnyk, Viktoriia Lovynska, Ivan Lakyda, and Yuriy Gritsan

The formation of live biomass of forests is premised on many factors, among which the dominant ones are stands growth conditions and biometric characteristics. The purpose of this research is to develop reference materials for the evaluation of crown live biomass structural components for stands of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) for the conditions of the Northern Steppe of Ukraine. The field research has been carried out in Scots pine and black locust stands of artificial origin subordinated to the State Forest Resources Agency of Ukraine. The research employed the classical forest mensuration techniques for collecting and processing experimental material on 40 test plots. The modelling was preceded by the stage of statistical analysis of the input dataset, which characterizes the live biomass of forest stands’ crown. Mean age, diameter, and height of stands, as well as their relative stocking, have been identified as informative and statistically significant predictors. We have developed the two- and three-factor allometric regression equations for assessment of crown live biomass compo- nents – branches over bark and foliage based on the biometric indices of stands. The adequacy of the models has been estimated by the determination coefficient (0.47–0.71) and Fisher’s F-test. In black locust and Scots pine stands with the same average diameter and relative stocking, live biomass of branches and foliage will be larger in those, where the mean height of the main species is smaller. The obtained allometric equations for assessing the biophysical indices of live biomass subject to this research can be used for practical forestry purposes in the course of forest inventory, determination of harvest volumes, and assessment of ecosystems services.

503-513

Authors: Petar Zhelev, Nikolay Tsvetanov, Ina Aneva, and Dimiter Ivanov

Species of genus Tilia (lime) still did not gain the attention they deserve by researchers and forest managers. Their importance as a significant part of forest biodiversity is expected to increase, especially in the light of changing environment, due to climate change and other factors. We present a mini-review about the genetic resources of Tilia species in Bulgaria. The survey starts with species diversity, including the standing taxonomic problems, and continues with genetic variation. A thorough evaluation of lime species’ genetic resources and their conservation in Bulgaria is performed, facilitated by a specially developed database. Knowledge gaps are identified and some domains for prospective studies are outlined.

520-527

Authors: Biser Hristov

The main components of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) are assessed in order to study the physicochemical properties in Phaeozems. These soils in Bulgaria usually have high humus accumulation, soil texture differentiation, high base saturation and soil reaction suitable for crops. They are spread in plains, valleys, forests and low hills with temperate continental climate. Soil-forming materials are Pliocene and Quaternary sediments, loess and loess-like clays. The soil reaction (pH) varies from slightly acidic to alkaline. Soil alkalinity increases in depth because of high carbonate mineral compounds that mainly contain Ca and Mg. Total acidity and exchange acidity are in very low values. Exchangeable Ca consists about 78 % of CEC. It is established that soil colloids are occupied by Ca and Mg ions, which determined the stability of clay minerals. Phaeozems have favorable physicochemical properties with high cation exchange capacity and base saturation. These soils are highly valued for their fertility potential.

540-548

Authors: Margareta Rahayuningsih, Firman Heru Kurniawan, and Nugroho Edi Kartijono

Ficus plays an essential role in the forest ecosystem and can be used as an indicator of success in the local environment. Its lateral rooting system binds with soil, thereby maintaining soil stability. The fig fruit of Ficus is essential food for frugivores. This study aims to determine the species richness and potential as frugivorous feed, focusing on Gentong Hill, Mount Ungaran. Mount Ungaran is a forest ecosystem with a variety of flora and fauna, including various species of Ficus, and was selected as a research location due to the habitat it provides for animals and plants. This research was conducted between January and May 2018. Data was selectively sampled based on Ficus accessibility and location. Its feed potential was determined using scoring based on fruit dimensions and colour. The research showed 24 species of Ficus in six sub-genera. According to our scoring results, these species were divided into four categories based on their frugivorous feed potential: high potential (4 Ficus species), potential (11), and less potential (9). This finding implies that Gentong Hill plays an important role in providing food for frugivores, and its maintenance is urgently necessary.

3-14

Authors: Elias Milios, Kyriaki Kitikidou, Stelios Chatzakis, and Maria Batziou

The aim of this study was to analyze the diameter structure of a Quercus pubescens-Quercus frainetto remnant forest in Northeastern Greece. The main disturbances acting in the study area are illegal cuttings and grazing. Two site types are found in the studied forest as a result of different grazing pressure. In site type A, where the grazing pressure is not as intense as in site type B, there are Q. pubescens-Q. frainetto degraded stands. Site type B is covered by Q. pubescens degraded stands. In each site type, a square plot of 100×100 m was established. Each plot was divided into four square subplots of 50×50 m (I, II, III and IV subplots), where the breast height diameter of all trees having a diameter equal and over 4 cm was measured. For I, II, III and IV subplots, I+II subplot and I+II+III+IV plot Anderson-Darling statistic was used in order to examine in which typical distribution their diameter distribution fits better. This procedure took place for the investigation of diameter structure spatial heterogeneity. Both species, in all plots, present low basal area and do not exhibit large diameters. The main conclusion of this study is that there is a significant spatial heterogeneity in the tree diameter structure. This heterogeneity is a combination of different forms of diameter distributions as well as of differences in basal area in the different plots. In site type B the spatial heterogeneity is more intense than in site type A if the form of the diameter distributions is considered as the main criterion for the heterogeneity assessment. On the other hand, the heterogeneity is higher in site type A if only the differences among the basal areas of subplots of 50×50 m are taken into account. The understanding of the structure of these rare for Greece stands will contribute to the protection and sustainable management of them as well as of analogous ecosystems.

30-45

Authors: Sergiy Musienko, Oleksandr Lyalin, Ludmila Tkach, Vira Bondarenko, Marina Kolenkina, and Oksana Tarnopilska

The objects of the study were the forests in different natural zones in Ukraine. The aim was to reveal the relations between forest cover of water catchments of about 50 rivers of Dnipro, South Bug, Desna, and Siversky Donets basins in different natural zones and the components of water balance, atmospheric precipitations, surface, subsurface and total runoff and evapotranspiration. It was revealed that due to the increase in forest cover up to 20–25 % there was an increase in precipitation up to 95 % in all natural zones of Ukraine. However, further increase in the forest cover did not significantly affect it. The maximum amount of surface runoff (up to 90 %) absorbed by forests was detected when an increase in forest cover was up to 20 % in the steppe part of Ukraine and up to 50 % in Polissya zone. The highest increase in total evaporation – up to 60 % – can be observed if the forest cover increases up to 20–25 % in the Steppe zone and up to 50 % in Polissya and Forest-Steppe zones. Water conservation functions of catchment forest ecosystems are closely related to their spatial distribution and vegetation development as well as the specificities of economic activities within catchments. Significant improvement of Ukrainian rivers is impossible without sustainable management of the territory and increasing its forest cover to certain – optimal or minimum required – level. In this case, a small river catchment is to be the primary territorial unit for land and forest management. Water system sustainability and floodplain agricultural land improvement require complete afforestation of the meandering zones of rivers, as well as meander bars, dead stream branches, coasts of lakes, and scrublands.

65-76

Authors: Roya Abedi and Tooba Abedi

The main goal of this study was to achieve a set of the main key to sustainable urban forest indicators by using Fuzzy Delphi method – Iran perspective. The questionnaires were developed based on the ecological (sub-criteria including urban trees biodiversity, trees canopy coverage, flood control, species habitat provision, carbon storage and greenhouse gases sequestration), social (sub-criteria including physical assess to nature, visual assess to nature, increasing growing space in the city, air quality improvement and danger probability of urban trees) and economic criteria (sub-criteria including energy conservation and increase property value) and 13 experts in the field of forest sciences were chosen to sit on the panel of experts. The results of this study showed that carbon storage and greenhouse gases sequestration (final weight = 0.25) in ecological sub-criteria, air quality improvement (final weight = 0.24) in social and energy conservation (final weight = 0.66) in economic criterion has the first level of importance in each criterion. The results demonstrate that urban forests not only beautify the landscape, they even play a major role in ecological, social and economic values. The results of this study will be implemented in urban forests developing projects by helping in suggesting proper tree species to maximize all of the indicators factors investigated in this study.

97-108

Authors: Yuliya V. Kladko, Vera E. Benkova, Larisa N. Skripal’shсhikova, and Alexander N. Tashev

The research undertaken focused on trunk diameter growth dynamics of seven woody species widely used in urban community gardening in Siberian cities: Picea pungens, Betula pendula, Ulmus pumila, Populus balsamifera, Sorbus aucuparia, Padus maackii, Malus baccata. Diameter growth rate was used as indirect indicator of the extent to which industrial pollutions may affect woody species in community gardening. Greening of large industrial city Krasnoyarsk was under study. Five sample sites differing in content of industrial pollutions were established within the districts of the city. It was reviled that in the Downtown greenings being under heavy recreation and vehicle-caused pollutions S. aucuparia, P. maackii, P. pungens, B. pendula and P. balsamifera could be successfully used rather than U. pumila and M. baccata. Greenings heavily polluted by nonferrous metallurgy enterprises should be composed with tolerant M. baccata, B. pendula, U. pumila and P. maackii, and; at that time P. pungens, S. aucuparia and P. balsamifera could not be recommended for planting hear. In greenings heavily polluted by heat power plants and chemical (pulp and paper) enterprises should be composed with tolerant P. pungens, S. aucuparia, P. maackii. B. pendula, U. pumila, P. balsamifera, M. baccata could not be recommended for planting there. Greenings, if planted in accordance with this recommendations, can be highly effective in fulfilling environmental, protective, sanitary, and esthetic functions in industrial cities. It should be taken into account in the implementation of management programs and development strategies for Siberian urban greenings.

119-131

Authors: Atinç Pirti

The hybrid techniques (rapid static/total station) can be very helpful technology for centimetre and millimetre level positioning in the woodland. Point Positioning with CORS GNSS (Continuously Operating Reference Stations Global Navigation Satellite System) in the woodland is a significant challenge in terms of time saving to obtain high accurate coordinates of the points. The time for integer carrier-phase ambiguity solution takes approximately one-hour or more time for point positioning under the woodland with GNSS surveys. In this study, hybrid techniques for estimating point coordinates under woodland has been performed, which gives the positioning results with millimetre and centimetre level accuracy and nearly 30 minutes are required to provide the new point location in the woodland. The proposed method may also have practical usage for forest-woodland areas applications with desired accuracy at mm level, which is reached in a short observation time. A fieldwork has been performed to obtain coordinates of the point (K) in woodland with CORS GNSS system and supplementary measurements by establishing two control points (T1, T2) observed by rapid static method located at the border of the woodland. On the other hand, the coordinates of point (K) have been also gained by using a static method (3 hours observation). The coordinate differences (static-hybrid) show that a satisfactory solution for woodland is reached at mm level in a short observation time.

153-164

Authors: Budi Mulyana, Djoko Soeprijadi, and Ris Hadi Purwanto

The paradigm of multipurpose forest management in gliricidia plantation can be developed to produce woody biomass and carbon stock. Production estimation of gliricidia plants in producing woody biomass and carbon stocks needs to be estimated through allometric models. The research objective is determining the best allometric equations of wood biomass and carbon stocks with predictors of stem diameter. The materials used in the study were the gliricidia stand with age 1–5 years at Forest Management Unit Semarang. The method used in measuring and estimating forest carbon stocks refers to Indonesian National Standard (SNI) No 7724: 2011 and the SNI No 7725: 2011. The results showed that the biomass of gliricidia plants was distributed in stems (10.75 %), branches (86.30 %), and leaves (2.93 %). Furthermore, the average carbon content in stems was 57.40 %, in branches – 56.30 %, and in leaves – 52.90 % of the dry weight. R2adj of allometric models were 0.780 (linear); 0.730 (exponential); 0.532 (logarithmic); 0.799 (polynomial); and 0.959 (power). While the RMSE values were 38.89 %, 1.20 %, 56.66 %, 37.16 %, and 0.48 %, respectively. The allometric model validation showed that power model is the best allometric model for wood biomass and total carbon content. Thus, it can be considered to estimate wood biomass and total carbon with predictors of stem diameter. Further research by adding other predictors is needed to make the result of allometric models more accurate.

177-190

Authors: Toma Tonchev, Yordan Ivanov, Ilko Dobrichov, and Yavor Poryazov

This paper presents results of a study on the stand structure and some stocking control approaches of uneven-aged coniferous stands. The even-aged forest management prevails in silvicultural practices in Bulgarian forestry. Uneven-aged silviculture started in the early 1930s when the Biolley control method has been applied in the forest management plan of ‘Chamkoria’ forest. There is relatively little knowledge of uneven-aged forest management compared to a large amount of forest research related to even-aged one. The stand structure of uneven-aged stands is described by diameter distribution and normal, exponential and Weibull distributions have been tested for fit. The optimal distribution of trees by diameter classes (14–18 cm, 22–38 cm, above 42 cm) is calculated for stands with exponential and Weibull distribution.

209-223

Authors: Tatik Suhartati, Ris Hadi Purwanto, Agus Setyarso, and Sumardi

The private smallholder forest significantly contributes to the wood industry as well as to the livelihood and needs of the society. Farmers grow mixtures of crops and species leading to a multi-layer vegetation covers, and forest stand. However, the structure and composition of the forest exposes a unique mosaic on the landscape. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the association between forest stand structure and composition with varying farmer’s livelihood strategies such as fully-managed forest farmer, partly-managed forest farmer, and non-managed forest farmer. Data were obtained from Semoyo Village, Patuk District, Gunungkidul Regency from 72 plots representing two types of planting pattern, namely: trees along the border and mixed patterns. The negative exponential model was used to describe the forest structure model. The results showed that fully-managed forest farmers tend to have few trees with the smallest diameter at breast height, plant more multi-purposes trees species. All stand structures in the three types of farmers’ can be described by a negative exponential model, but each type possessing a different rate of diminishing in the number of trees. All of these showed that differences in stand structure are a reflection of differences in livelihood strategies.

236-253

Authors: Nazi Avani and Habibah Lateh

The use of vegetation as slope cover becomes an alternative solution for slope stabilization instead of using shotcrete cover. Use of vegetation is a way to reduce the impact of engineering works and increase the landscape quality. Although the use of vegetation to reduce slope failure is common around the world during the last decades, but in Malaysia there is still lack of such studies. Therefore, to answer the question whether the existence of tropical trees increase the soil shear strength against slope failure and measuring the amount of increase, the soil engineering properties of two tropical species were studied. Eight trees of similar age of Acacia mangium and Macaranga tanarius, were selected along the East-West highway, Malaysia. The direct shear tests were used to analyze the effect of tree roots on soil mechanical properties. Soil and root properties such as moisture and bulk density with and without root and root architecture of two species were analyzed. The results showed that the existence of roots increases soil shear strength and this is higher in soil sample with M. tanarius roots which increases it with about 11 % to 44 % while A. mangium trees increase soil shear strength with about 7 % to 27 %. The soil particle size in M. tanarius samples shows higher coarse grain size, therefore, the higher soil shear strength could be explained. The results showed that there is a negative correlation between soil moisture and soil shear strength and a positive correlation between soil bulk density and soil shear strength. The root architecture of M. tanarius with VH-type also imply the higher soil shear strength compare with A. mangium. In conclusion, M. tanarius root and soil properties implied higher soil shear strength of soil samples compared to A. mangium.

262-269

Authors: Alexey Andreychev and Ekaterina Boyarova

Republic of Mordovia in Russia is a historical focus for hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and tularemia. This study aimed at assessing the current status of these foci by studying their rodent reservoirs. Among the small rodents in Mordovia, the red bank vole, the common vole and the house mouse play an important role as carriers of zoonotic diseases. However, it is necessary to take into account the role of such а small species as forest dormouse (Dryomys nitedula), which has a high percentage of infection. Of all examined dormice, 66.7 % were found to have antigens of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome viral pathogen, and 33.3 % - to have antigens of tularemia pathogen. Only one specimen (16.7 %) was found to have no antigens of zoonotic diseases. Our study concluded that the forest dormouse in the Republic of Mordovia was incriminated as a pathogen reservoir causing infectious diseases in human.

227-236

Authors: Milad Safari, Kiomars Sefidi, Ahmad Alijanpour, and Mohammad Razi Elahian

This study investigated the relationships between physiographical factors and trees structural characteristics in Arasbaran forest, northwest of Iran. Systematic randomized sampling method was used to collect data and in sample plot used the distance method for determination of spatial distribution pattern. Results of spatial distribution pattern indices showed the clumped spatial distribution for Caucasian oak trees (Quercus macranthera Fisch. & C.A.Mey. ex Hohen). In addition, the altitude affected the tree’s characteristics significantly. The greatest tree’s diameter at breast height was found in R3 and density of trees was decreased by increasing of altitude. Distance to neighbour index showed four to six meter distances between trees. DBH and height differentiation indices demonstrated uniformity in trees. Landform indices had the greatest average on R3 and had a significant correlation with trees density and crown area. It could be concluded that the difference in physiographical condition is one of the main factors of the tree’s spatial distribution and forest structure variation at physiographical units in this study area.

251-263

Authors: Tatiana A. Mikhailova, Olga V. Shergina, and Olga V. Kalugina

The biogeochemical data of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forests have been studied in the impact and buffer zones of the influence of technogenic emissions from the large industrial center Usolie-Sibirskoe (East Siberia, Russia). Changes in the acid-base balance, accumulation and migration of elements-pollutants, the content of nutrient elements in the components of forest ecosystem – tree-stands, forest litter, soil horizons – on contaminated areas compared to the background sample plot have been revealed. A significant shift in the acid-base balance to the alkaline range and an active migration of elements-pollutants in soil horizons and forest litter have been shown to be key processes causing a disturbance of exchange reactions of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+ cations in the soil absorbing complex (SAC) and a decrease in nutrient elements migration into root systems of trees. Pronounced changes in the acid-base balance, high accumulation of elements-pollutants, binding of nutrient elements by pollutants in the soil horizons and in plant tissues lead to the disruption of nutrition and to the inhibition of pine trees growth processes. The biogeochemical parameters observed are characterized by interconnected changes in the main components of the forest ecosystem (soil and tree-stand) and can serve as adequate criteria for assessing its state under technogenic pollution.

275-288

Authors: Paolo Viola, Riccardo Primi, Federica Gabbianelli, Pier Paolo Danieli, Livia Lucentini, and Andrea Amici

Rock partridge (Alectoris graeca) is included in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive as Species of Conservation Concern (SPEC 1), because of the continuing decline in the area of occupancy. In this context, ex situ conservation programs and production systems of captive Rock partridges suited to the wild are necessary to ensure that insurance, reintroduction or restocking goals are met. Anyway, morphological changes occurring in captive-reared animals indicate the loss of animal’s ability to survive in natural environment. In this study, we used the offspring of wild Apennine rock partridges (Alectoris graeca graeca). The young birds were divided into two groups, the first (G1) was housed in enriched and wild-like environment, the second (G2) was subjected to intensive-rearing conditions. Starting at 14 days post-hatching (DPH) and continuing up to 98 DPH, body mass (BM), tarsus length (TL), tarsus depth (TD), tarsus width (TW), head width (HW), head length (HL), wing length (WL) and beak length (BL), were measured fortnightly. Birds in G1 showed shorter heads (F = 10.50, p = 0.000) and thinner tarsi (F = 9.80, p = 0.000) at 84 DPH. At 98 DPH also the TD measurement (F = 8.71, p = 0.001) became significantly lower in G1 then in G2. Birds in G1 showed morphological disadvantages (shorter heads and less developed limbs) as a possible result of limited physical and cognitive exercise in simple artificial environment. Our results suggest that intensive rearing does not contribute to relevant morphological disadvantages within 70 DPH. Accordingly, birds for restocking or reintroduction should be translocated within this time limit into enriched and wild-like environment where they can exercise before the release into the wild. A first figure of morphological measurements for Apennine Rock partridge is reported.

301-313

Authors: Anton Potapenko, Nikolay Bulko, Alexander Kozlov, Pavel Mohnachev, Nadezda Kuzmina, Konstantin Zavyalov, and Sezgin Ayan

The high radiosensitivity of woody plants and the large forest areas polluted by Chernobyl fallout demand assessment of radiation effect on the forest ecosystems components. This research aims to study the state of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands located in the far and near areas contaminated by Chernobyl fallout, and to assess the current dose loads on the structural elements of the trees 30 years after the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (CNPP) accident. The study was conducted in radioactively contaminated Scots pine stands, which are the near and far areas, in the Chernobyl fallout areas. The experimental plots were established during the period from 1991 to 2006 inside Scots pine stands from the II–IV age classes. The retrospective assessment of dose loads of the Scots pine was conducted according to the data obtained on 13 experimental plots located in the far area of the Chernobyl fallout through the software RESRAD-BIOTA 1.5 (11/18/2009). The condition of pine stands in the near areas has significantly worsened since the accident, compared to their condition before the accident. The changes in the state of the pine stands after the accident were characterized by their strong weakening. Ambiguous trends were also observed in the stability of stands depending on the type of forest and land relief. In 1986, the radionuclide 134Cs accounted for 25 % of the total amount of soil pollution by mixture (134Сs + 137Сs) in pine stands. However, in 1995, this amount decreased to 2.5 %. The state of the Scots pine stands after the accident were characterized by their strong weakening.

329-338

Authors: Vladimir Tomov

The aim of the research was assessment of the vegetation in park Zaimov, situated in the central part of Sofia. The used methods represent a new approach for more profound assessment of urban green spaces vegetation in Bulgaria, in more than one aspect. Therefore, those methods could be a subject of improvement and development in future studies. All woody vegetation of the park was taxonomically identified and mapped. Forty-four tree species from 27 genera were registered in the park. The individuals count 1156 trees with calculated relative effective volume (REV) of 79,511.45 m3. This volume decreases 10 times during winter, which makes the park vegetation inefficient during this period. The vegetation is in good condition except trees at the south border of the park. Models of the tree crowns of four common species, well presented in the park, were made. The aesthetic values of the presented species give well-balanced and enough in quantity ornamental accents to the park environment in the different times of the year. The valuable old vegetation should be preserved in future reconstructions and better care should be provided to the new planted one. A strong suggestion for building a denser hedge barrier of evergreen vegetation across the south border or the park was made.

351-368

Authors: Tatiana Stankova, Veselka Gyuleva, Emil Popov, Krasimira Petkova, Dimitar N. Dimitrov, Vasil Biserkov, Ekaterina Andonova, and Penka Stefanova

The main objective of this study was to investigate the influence of genotype, spacing, age and harvesting cycle on the woody biomass production from coppiced plants of the black poplar hybrids (Populus × euramericana (Dode) Guinier) ‘Agathe F’ and ‘Guardi’. The experiment was carried out in a Nelder wheel trial plantation with 11 nearly-square spacings, ranging from 1.0 to 11.5 m2 and data collection took place at the end of the 2nd, 4th and 5th year from plantation establishment. Spacing significantly affected dendromass production in both clones and all harvesting cycles considered. The individual plant biomass generally increased with spacing, but growth approached saturation at the lowest densities for the plants of clone ‘Agathe F’. Comparable dendromass amounts were recorded for both clones after 1 and after 3 years of shoot growth, and marginally significant genotype effect was found for the 4-year-period of dendromass production, when the plants of ‘Guardi’ attained higher biomass yields. No significant effect of the harvesting cycle was distinguished within 3-year production period, the accumulated amounts of 1- and 2-year-old shoots yielding similar quantities to those of 3-year-old sprouts for both clones. The black poplar hybrids did not differ significantly in the number of sprouts produced at any of the investigated ages. The shoot number increased with growing space and with stump age, the influence of age being obscured only at the highest planting densities. The plants of clone ‘Agathe F’ showed substantial growth decline in the 5th year from plantation establishment due to worsen environmental conditions and biotic pests, while clone ‘Guardi’ proved higher suitability for cultivation as a short rotation crop under Mediterranean climate, because of its steady growth even at worsen site conditions. Under unfavourable alterations in the water availability and without additional irrigation, coppiced plantations of ‘Guardi’ would produce above 4 Mg/ha/year dry dendromass, if cultivated on light arable Fluvisols.

385-393

Authors: Evlogi Angelov, Gradimir Gruychev, and Stoyan Stoyanov

Releasing of hand-reared game birds is a powerful tool to increase the population size of wild birds and to lower hunting pressure on their natural populations. Survival and adaptation in the wild of farm game birds is crucial for assessing game farming efficiency. Survival rate of 36 Grey partridges released in the autumn from cages in the harsh environment of Mala Mountain uplands (850 m a.s.l.) (Central Western Bulgaria) was estimated by applying radio-telemetry. The study area was covered mainly by hay fields and pastures, while arable land was below 10 % of the territory. The birds stayed within an area of 70 ha (100 % maximum convex polygon) with dispersion below 770 m from releasing points. Very few birds dispersed in such long distances, while most of them stayed close to the cages. After releasing partridges showed preferences to scrub near hay fields. The highest mortality rates occurred in the first week when almost 80 % of birds died, and only one bird probably survived more than two weeks. The main factor for mortality was predation by Red fox (66.7 %). Synthesis and application: Grey partridge population size in harsh environments could not be increased by releasing of farm birds using traditional methods. Still the use of farm produced birds is reliable way for wild bird populations recovery, but the correct methods and high-quality farm birds have to be used. Habitat quality also plays an important role in the survival of released birds and their interactions with wild populations.

404-412

Authors: Kameliya Petrova, Pavel Pavlov, and Yordan Ivanov

The soil fertility of Acrisols on the territory of ‘Petrohan’ Training and Experimental Forest Range was assessed by applying the National Classification System developed for soils in forest territories, according to which the following 4 indicators were used – soil depth, org. C stock, total N stock and available soil moisture. In accordance with it Acrisols were characterized from low to moderately fertile. The growth of tree species was also assessed and it was determined as very good for Fagus sylvatica L., Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. and Betula pendula L. For Pinus sylvestris L. and Carpinus betulus L. was established low growth. The good growth of tree stands did not correspond to the soil fertility assessments. They were different regarding the different indicators. It is assumed that the static examination of nutrient stock should be replaced by studies on the balance of their use and recovery in soils through the biological nutrient cycling.

425-442

Authors: Stoyan Stoyanov

Craniometric characteristics and sexual dimorphism have been described for many carnivore species in Europe. However, very few studies have focused on cranial variability of golden jackal (Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758) in Europe, despite its expanding distribution in recent decades. Although numerous works have addressed sexual dimorphism in carnivore skull size, only few studies have attempted to study dimorphism in overall cranial shape. The present study proposes the first comprehensive analysis of golden jackal skull morphometry in Bulgaria, trying to clarify shape and size related cranial variability and differentiation. Extensive morphometric data of jackal skulls were analysed by applying recently developed statistical tools to answer the following questions: (i) is there a geographic variation in skull size and shape among golden jackal population in Bulgaria, (ii) are there age-related cranial differences, and (iii) how pronounced is the sexual dimorphism in skull shape and size? A total of 176 skulls of golden jackals, collected all over the country, were analysed by univariate and multivariate statistical methods. Principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis were applied on the standardized and log-transformed ratios of the original measurements to clearly separate specimens by shape and size. Skulls of golden jackal in Bulgaria show considerable individual variability but weak intrapopulation differentiation. The differences in shape and size of the jackal skulls, as far as they exist, are age-related, but only juveniles younger than 11 months could be easily distinguished. Subadult and adult jackals largely overlap in skull size and shape. Sexual dimorphism in jackal skulls is weakly pronounced, with older males a little bit larger than females. The results of the present research are consistent with recent genetic and morphological studies and give new insights on patterns in cranial variability and population structure of golden jackal in Bulgaria.

451-458

Authors: Margarita Georgieva, Gergana Zaemdzhikova, Plamen Mirchev, and Georgi Georgiev

The hatching dynamics of larvae of early developing phenological form of pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) based on 93 egg batches was monitored under laboratory conditions. The egg batches were collected on July 12, 2018 in a 30-year-old Pinus nigra plantation, at an altitude of 450 m in the region of Fotinovo village, Kirkovo State Forestry, Eastern Rhodopes. Newly hatched larvae started appearing at the beginning of July 2018, and continued for a month, until August 8, 2018. The peak lasted for 13 days, from the 19th to 31th of July, during which 80.6 % of the larvae hatched. Field observations conducted in parallel, showed that the larval development in the studied habitat lasted for about three months.