Tyragetia

9-29

Authors: Valentin Tomuleţ

In this study, based on archival and published sources, the author analyzes the status of călăraşi based on the comparative approach: from the Moldovan traditions to Russian imperial administrative system. The author ascertains that călăraşi as the guards' category were mentioned in the documentary information from the 16th century, as being recruited among free peasants and obliged to go to war on their own account at the request of the rulers, for tax exemption or the right to use royal estates. Over the centuries this social category has undergone significant changes, not only numerically but also in terms of social and legal status. In the 18th century, with the decline of military importance of the călăraşi, their secondary tasks were maintained and extended. The privileges enjoyed by this social category were confirmed by rulers, similar to the privileged classes of society. Upon annexation of Bessarabia to Russia călăraşi kept only auxiliary functions, being considered serving for local governments, persons responsible for local security; during wartime they participated in the finding of carts for the transportation of supplies, etc. Călăraşi formed indigenous militia and were at the command of ispravnic for the execution of different tasks in the counties. They were employed in the service from the free villages exempted of any drudgery and tax, but a military billeting; they immediately obeyed ispravnic's orders, receiving annual payment in money. Over time, the tsarist government, as with other social groups, tried to regulate this category of servants, limiting their activities, reducing substantially its number and fitting it into some legal rules. For this purpose there even was made up a regulation statute for călăraşi. Despite privileges enjoyed by this social category, the situation of călăraşi was not easy, as evidenced by the many complaints from them at various district and regional administrative offices.

55-63

Authors: Vasile Mărculeţ, Ioan Mărculeţ

In the spring-summer of 971, after the victories over the Grand Prince of Kiev Svyatoslav I who seized Bulgaria, the Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces conquered the territories of Eastern Bulgaria and the Lower Danube. The main cities of the region, Preslav and Dristra, under Byzantine rule have been renamed Ioannoupolis şi Theodoroupolis. The Bulgarian political formation maintained in Macedonia during the reign of Cometopuli brothers led the policy of restoration of the Bulgarian Tsardom. In the conquered territories John I Tzimisces has organized new Byzantine themes: the Strategy of Ioannoupolis in Eastern Bulgaria (spring 971) and the Catepanate of The- odoroupolis on the Lower Danube (summer 971). But soon the Catepanate of Theodoroupolis was replaced with the Strategy of Dristra or Dorostolon (971 or 972). Due to the intensification of the Bulgarian threat the Strategy of Dristra (Dorostolon) was replaced with the Catepanate of Western Mesopotamia (before 975).

71-79

Authors: Lora Taseva

The hesychast dispute between Gregory Palamas and Barlaam of Calabria was reflected in several treatises they wrote, which were translated in Church Slavonic as early as in the 1360s. This translation, by a happy coincidence, is kept in its original version in Codex 88 from the collection of the Dečani Monastery. The two Λóγοι àποδεικτικοí of Palamas and the Slovo vtoro na latine of Barlaam are known to us in five copies. The oldest one is kept in the Collection of the Noul Neamţ Monastery at the National Archives of the Republic of Moldova. The article comes to the following conclusions, on the basis of the manuscript tradition of these three texts and of the known literary and historical facts: 1) the Kishinev copy is the earliest one but less reliable, as far as textual criticism goes, than the Hilandar copy; 2) it was most probably created on Mount Athos; 3) the Kishinev copy is the direct antigraph of a lost common predecessor "v" of the three Visarion of Debar's copies; 4) the "v" copy was created on Athos but how did it get to the Slepce Monastery - directly from there or via Novo Brdo - is an issue for further discussion.

89-96

Authors: Dumitra Bulei

In the first half of the 17th century, the crucial time for Romanian culture, the Wallachian throne was occupied by Matei Basarab (1632-1654), a descendant of the brilliant Basarab dynasty, who played an important role in the political development of Muntenia and is associated with some illustrious names in the religious and cultural life of the country. He inherited from his ancestors the zeal for religion and culture and was going to establish churches, schools, and in the first place - printing houses. With the assistance of the Metropolitan of Kiev Peter Mohyla, who had made Ukraine the center of Orthodox culture, he renewed the beautiful tradition of distribution of religious books that originated in the sixteenth century. An important role in the culture of the time of Matei Basarab played the famous scribe Udrişte Năsturel and his sister Princess Elina. The printing activity at this time known as the „golden age" of Romanian culture was flourishing. In printing centers of Câmpulung Muscel, Govora, the Dealu Monastery, and the Archdiocese of Târgovişte there had been printing 10 titles of books in Slavonic as well as translated books in Romanian. The first Romanian book printed under the reign of Matei Basarab was Pravila de la Govora (1640). Four years later, at the Dealu Monastery there was printed the book Evanghelia învătăţoare, the text of which is slightly different from Cazania lui Varlaam. At the printing house of Târgovişte there were printed: Pogribania preotilor (1650), Mistyrio or Sacrament (1651), Târnosanie, and Îndreptarea legii (1652). The last book has a special significance in the history of the old Romanian literature and is also known as Pravila cea Mare a lui Matei Basarab (The Great Code of Matei Basarab) - a collection of civil and ecclesiastical laws, more complete than the Code of Vasile Lupu. Pravila cea Mare was widely spread all over the Romanian territories, especially in Transylvania, being demanded until the early nineteenth century. Circulation of printed book led to the unity of language and consciousness of the Romanian people.

111-114

Authors: Jackson Little

The article presents a new look at the cultural and diplomatic significance of the Prut march of 1711 and its influence on the rise of the cultural trend of Pan-Slavism in the middle of the 19th century. The main reason is Peter's acceptance of the mantle "defender of the Balkan Christians" - a term from the diplomatic arsenal, which later influenced the development of the Russian imperial form of pan-Slavism. The purpose of the article is to provoke a new dialogue about the origin of this movement and about the great significance of the Great Northern War for Eastern European diplomacy.

129-134

Authors: Vlad D. Ghimpu

The Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in the Căpriana Monastery is the oldest of the existing monuments of religious architecture, built in the gospodars' tradition of the medieval Moldova. Many elements of its architecture have been preserved from the time of Stephen the Great (1457-1504) and Petru Rareş (1527-1538, 1541-1546), in spite of extensive reconstruction, which was carried out in 1819-1820. However, as a result of the reconstruction the current structure of the church does not match the description given in the XIX century. The question of the original structure of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in the Căpriana Monastery remains unresolved and requires further investigation.

145-148

Authors: Igor Gulyanovich

This article considers urbanonyms of Southern Bessarabia. There are shown general trends in the use of odonyms, agoronyms, and horonyms at Akkerman, Izmail (Tuchkov), and Kiliya. The paper discusses the features of development of the downtown areas and the functioning of urbanonyms in the first half of the 19th century.

157-166

Authors: Valentin Tomuleţ, Victoria Bivol

In this article, the authors put in discussion the issue of Bessarabian bourgeois elite, having as its representative the Greek merchant Pantelei Sinadino presented in archival sources as a Turkish citizen, who since 1829 owned in Chişinău a real estate valued at 50 thousand rubles and was enlisted in the class of first guild merchants in Chisinau. Commercial capital owned by P. Sinadino reached in 1830s about 2 million rubles and was formed not only through trade and usury. He also owned various commercial and industrial enterprises. In 1836 P. Sinadino owned a wool washhouse in the Visterniceni (or Râşcani) estate located not far from Chişinău, which washed 30,000 poods of wool per year. It was bringing an income of 7,000 rubles. Despite the fact that P. Sinadino had a great commercial capital, in 1840, following the abolition of trade privileges granted by Guild Regulation of September 26, 1830, he moved to the class of second guild merchants. In this category, with a few interruptions, he remained in the following years. This proves once again that the commercial bourgeoisie sought different ways to enjoy all the privileges granted by the tsarist government, trying to evade duties. So, a merchant could go to a lower guild, and then, after providing new benefits, get back in the first guild. P. Sinadino increased his capital through the exploitation of small producers, having rented in 1840 a number of localities with huge areas of land - Şerpeni, Pugăceni, Dubasarii Vechi, Corjova, Bilacheva, etc. According to documentary evidence, the peasants of these villages were subjected to various long-lasting and hard drudgeries as well as public corporal punishments. The case of Greek merchant P. Sinadino shows that foreign bourgeoisie found in Bessarabia extensive field for trading and thanks to privileges granted by Russian government received a real opportunity to accumulate huge commercial capital and to monopolize not only the most important branches of domestic and foreign trade, but also industry, usury, etc. It was a serious obstacle in the process of formation of national commercial bourgeoisie in Bessarabia.

175-183

Authors: Tatiana Chicaroş

Based on the analysis of archival documents the article reflects the history and activity of the girls' school of A.L. Chudnahovskaia - E.I. Genshke in Bălţi. In the development of the school there are three stages. According to archival sources of 1884, it was established instead of a second category school (four-year training system) headed by Zinaida Negruş. Due to financial difficulties the school was closed after ten years of operation. Parents of children enrolled in it appealed to local authorities through an official I.A. Marandich to request the continuation of the school, as they are unable to send their children to schools located in other cities. After several consultations with teachers from local schools, I.A. Marandich asked Augustina Chudnahovskaia, the former teacher of French and German from the Negruş's school, to get permission from the Department of Public Education to open a new school similar to the previous one. Thanks to perseverance of the director of popular schools P.C. Borzakovekov, it was decided to open in Bălţi a similar four-year school. The new school began its work on 5 September 1894. The teaching staff was formed from the former school's teach- ers working more on enthusiasm than for money. The amount of money left of the school fees was equally shared among all the teachers. At the beginning of their activities they were paid 5-6 rubles a year for a teaching subject. Their work brought good results. For 10 years of its activity the school had 270 students, 77 of which attended the full course of study. On average, each year the school had an enrollment of up to 27 students. The greatest difficulties in the development of this institution emerged during its reorganization in a gymnasium. The first query on the matter was sent to the authorities in 1899, but was not satisfied. Subsequent attempts in 1901 also failed. Only in 1904, the school was reorganized in a progymnasium for girls providing four-year courses. Later, in 1908, the progymnasium was reorganized in a gymnasium school providing seven-year courses. In the archival docu- ments the school appears under two names - the gymnasium of A.L. Chudnahovskaia and the lyceum of E.I. Genshke.

191-202

Authors: Manole Brihuneţ

Dans cet article l'auteur discute sur les lois en vigueur dans la région Nistru-Prut sur l'arrangement des cimetières et l'édifice des églises dans les nécropoles. Les sources archivistiques et les représentations des églises nous permettent de déterminer tous les instructions qu'ont influencées sur l'arrangement des nécropoles et la construction des basiliques. La règle acceptée du pouvoir impérial installé les fondements de transformation des traditions régionales sur la construction des basiliques dans les cimetières

215-220

Authors: Cristina Tănase

In the eighties, the Bessarabian nobleman Mihail Stroesku's attempts to support the Romanian Bessarabian education were rejected by the Russian authorities, so his philanthropic activities was conducted in the Kingdom of Romania, especially in Transylvania. "Association for Supporting Apprentices and Journeymen of Romanian Craftsmen of Braşov" was founded in 1869 by a group of Braşov intellectuals and merchants on the initiative of the priest Bartolomeu Baiulescu. The purpose of this organization was to help the apprentices and journeymen and to support craft activities in Braşov. The customs war, which broke out between Romania and Austria-Hungary in mid-1886, had serious consequences for the economy of Transylvania. The economic disorders provoked the migration of a significant part of manufacturers and workshop owners from Transylvania outside the Carpathian arc that worsened the financial problems of the craftsmen association from Braşov. On November 22, Mihail Stroesku and his wife Eliza donated the association 25,000 Austrian florins (50,000 lei). Over the years, the "Eliza and Mihail Stroescu Foundation" was one of the main sources of its funding. This money has been spent on manuals, materials, awards, scholarships, rent, material assistance, current expenditure etc.

235-240

Authors: Silvia Scutaru

Bessarabian clergy actively provided moral and material support to the victims of war. It was created a clerical department to help the soldiers and their families. Each district elected a delegate to be part of a clerical group that would be subordinated to this department. The members if this group were sent to the front line if needed. The medical centers opened by the Bessarabian clergy treated wounded soldiers not only from Bessarabia, but also from the remote provinces of Russia and from Serbia. The clergy that was faithful to imperial authorities also helped to collect donations for the Russian army, which they regarded as Christ-loving. The departure of church choristers to the front line led to significant degradation of church music during that period. Another important aspect is that the monasteries also supported charity activities initiated by the tsarist authorities. Thus, the money raised was sent to cover various needs of the front and monks were assigned to perform religious services. Some monasteries provided shelter for children whose parents have died or been wounded in battle. The February Revolution of 1917 had a significant effect on the activity of the Bessarabian clergy, whose members began to publish articles on the problems of Bessarabia. They offered options for a peaceful reorganization of state and church based on new principles of Orthodox Faith. However, the socialist ideas have gained many supporters among soldiers and the faithful who believed that a new society could be built through destruction and anarchy. This caused persecutions of the clergy and even assassinations. Some priests supported the national movement and the principles of freedom and democratization of the church. However, assessing the impact of the First World War to Bessarabia, it should be recognized that the clergy supported the imperial power and subordinated to political interests of Russia.

253-268

Authors: Alexandru Furtună

The first information about the Church of the Holy Prophet Elijah in the town of Teleneşti is contained in the cen- sus of the Bessarabian churches, which was made during 1812-1813. The church was made of wood, with walls of interwoven twigs daubed with clay from the inside and the outside covered with fir planks. It had the shingle roof and was surrounded by the stockade. The belfry was built on four pillars and stood apart from the church. Over time, the old wooden church began to crumble; besides, it was not spacious enough. Therefore, in 1833 they start to build a stone church, which was opened in 1842. The new church was plastered, painted and covered with sheet iron. In 1899 and 1901 it was renovated. The church was built and maintained at the expense of landlord Feodosiu and his family, as well as due the contributions of residents of the town of Teleneşti. During the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Church of the Holy Prophet Elijah there served the following priests: Constantin Vasilovici, Teodor Băluţă, Ignatie Băluţă, Teodor Sechezliu, Vasile Băluţă, Pavel Coşleacov, Ioan Ioniţă, Andrei Timoşevschi, Constantin Băluţă, Ioan Chirilov, Iacob Samsonov, etc.

281-290

Authors: Angela Lisnic, Nadejda Scobioală

In the article there are presented results of the research of dynamics of teachers' salaries in 1945-1980s, a comparison of the salary with a living wage, as well as a comparison of official data with memories of teachers. There are given data on housing and living conditions of teachers in rural areas, the privileges in buying certain goods for teachers and other members of pedagogical staff in rural schools and loans on subsistence farming and construction of houses. There are examples of the calculation of salaries of teachers by grade in accordance with the provisions of the teachers' salary increase. There are also analyzed teachers' salaries depending on the working time, planning payroll for this category of workers and payments for additional work undertaken by them. The further research in this area will help to more fully understand the real social and financial status of teachers.

305-310

Authors: Jerzy Hatłas

The population of Transnistria is a true ethnic mosaic. The largest group consists of Moldovans (Romanians) - 31.9% according to the 2004 census. They are followed by Russians (30.3%) and Ukrainians (28.8%). The rest of the population is made up of Bulgarians (2%), as well as representatives of other nationalities, including Poles. Most of all Bulgarians live in the village of Parcani, located 5 km west of Tiraspol. The population of the village is more than 10 thousand inhabitants (10.2 thousand), of which 80% are Bulgarians. The village of Parcani was founded around 1740, but the Bulgarians settled here at the beginning of the 19th century (possibly in 1803 or 1811, or even in 1806). Bulgarians also live in Tiraspol and in Rîbniţa. Beginning with the 90ies of the 20th century, two schools from Parcani began to teach the Bulgarian language and the government of Bulgaria is giving great help in this. Also, the Bulgarian population of Transnistria has the opportunity to study Bulgarian language in universities.

317-323

Authors: Silviu Andrieş-Tabac

La commune de Lipnic, district (raion) d'Ocniţa est formée de deux villages - Lipnic (première mention le 19 septembre 1436) et Paustova (première mention le 20 décembre 1437). Les deux villages n'ont pas porté de symboles héraldiques et vexillologiques historiques. Les armoiries et les drapeaux des deux villages, ainsi que ceux de la commune, ont été élaborés et approuvées en 2011-2012, à l'initiative du maire Valentina Lupulciuc. La commune de Lipnic est la deuxiemme commune de la République de Moldavie, qui a résolu le problème des symboles héraldiques en complex, créant trois paires d'enseignes en relation organique. Outre la méthode traditionnelle des armes parlantes, la méthode d'assomption des armes historiques liées à un territoire a été de même utilisée. Ainsi, ont été reprises les armoiries des boyards moldaves de la fin du XIVe siècle - la première moitié du XVe siècle: seigneur Vâlcea de Lipnic et seigneur Mihail de Dorohoi, le premier propriétaire connu des deux domaines. Leurs armes sont connus d'après leurs sceaux, apposeés sur des actes d'hommage des princes régnants de Moldavie au roi de Pologne, conservées aujourd'hui dans les archives polonaises. Les nouveles enseignes ont été conçues par l'auteur et dessinées par le peintre Iurie Caminschi.

329-343

Authors: Vsevolod Obraztsov, Yuri Pyatnitsky

The focus of this article are interesting rarities from the collection of the State Hermitage Museum - swords of the 17th-18th centuries with inscriptions in Greek and Slavonic, with images of Christian saints inlaid in gold. The authors offer the general characteristics of 17 exemplars of this kind of arms which are divided into several groups according to the shape of the hilt. A brief overview of the relatively few publications on this subject includes articles by Vasilii Prokhorov (1877); data from the Index of the Medieval Department of the Imperial Hermitage published by Nikodim Kondakov (1891), a catalogue of Count Sergei Sheremetev's collection of arms compiled by Eduard Lenz (1895), and a monograph by E. Astvatsaturian on Turkish arms from the collection of the State Historical Museum (2002). The authors pay special attention to the description and analysis of two swords from the Hermit- age collection. One of them belonged to Count Michail Miloradovich, and was presented to him in 1807 from the city of Bucharest. The second sword came to the Hermitage after the Bolshevik Revolution from the Marble Palace, the residency of the Grand Dukes Konstantinovichi. Besides the traditional inscriptions and images of the Virgin with Child crowned by angels, the blade bears a unique image of Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros Phokas blessed by Jesus Christ with both hands. There are also two cartouches with quotations from Psalms in Greek. The extremely rich décor of this sword and the unique depiction of the Byzantine Emperor leave no doubt that they were made on a special order. The authors connect the sword to the Greek Project initiated by the Russian Empress Catherine the Great. The main idea of the project was a restoration of the Byzantine Empire with Constantinople-Istanbul as its capital, where Grand Duke Konstantin, Catherine the Great's grandchild, would be ascended to the throne. This article is a preliminary publication of a project in process on compilation of a complete catalogue of all swords with Greek and Slavonic inscriptions and with images on Christian subjects from the collection of the State Hermitage Museum.

357-366

Authors: Vera Stăvilă

The article presents the results of research of the collection of movie posters from the collection of the National Museum of History of Moldova. It was found that the posters cover the period of 1960-80-ies and reflect the artistic work of the studio "Moldova-Film" and activity of filmmakers E. Loteanu, V. Jereghi, V. Ioviţă, V. Brescanu, V. Gagiu, etc. In addition, the posters illustrate the filmography of actors S. Toma, Gr. Grigoriu, V. Soţchi-Voinicescu, Maria Sagaidac, M. Bădicheanu, V. Cupcea, S. Finiti, I. Arachelu, C. Târţău, I. Cucuruzac, C. Constantinov, and others. Most posters in the collection were signed by painters from the USSR and were printed in the Moscow Publishing House „Reclamfilm", even movie posters on the studio "Moldova-Film" products. The largest circulation of movie posters was in the 1970s. The largest was the circulation of posters for feature films „Theft" (1970) and „Reserve Officer" (1971) - 170 000 copies, as well as for the film „The Gypsy Camp Vanishes into the Blue" (1976) - 147 000 copies.

381-386

Authors: Ana Griţco

Collections of postcards are a chronicle in images that captivate us with variety of topics, the study of which can extract from the darkness of oblivion different scenes of everyday life in certain historical periods. In this sense, interesting is a postcard from the museum collection, which depicts Cafe Man'kov - a place where more than a century ago the Chişinău cream of society loved spending time. The history of this coffee house is associated with the name of A.I. Man'kov, a prosperous businessman of the second half of 19th - early 20th centuries. Initially, in the 1880s, it was located in the building of the Diocesan House (the Alexandrovskaia Street), where A. Man'kov rented premises, and since 1901 it has moved into the Schwartzman's House (the Pushkinskaia Street), a rented space as well. In 1905, the cafe was opened in a specially built building in Fountain Lane (between the Sinadinovskaia and Pushkinskaia Streets) known as Cafe Man'kov, with an interesting architecture, "European" interior, and tastefully furnished terraces. Cafe Man'kov was one of the first buildings in Chişinău which was electrified (1907). It soon became a favorite place of leisure for Chişinău dwellers, where one could drink tea or coffee with Swiss chocolate, enjoy a delicious cake, as well as have lunch or dinner. The cafe existed until 1934, when A. Man'kov died at the age of 92 years. In Soviet times, the building was demolished, and now in its place there is the Press House (the area between the streets of Pushkin and Vlaicu Pârcălab).

403-408

Authors: Lucia Marinescu-Tonu

In the period from 16 December 2010 to 25 March 2011 the National Museum of Archaeology and History of Moldova organized the exhibition "In the World of Toys". It was designed to diversify the museum's educational programs for visitors. The exhibition brought together over 450 exhibits, falling chronologically between the 4th millennium BC and 2010. Exceptional state of preservation, variety of subjects, intrinsic value and uniqueness were the criteria for selecting the objects for the exhibition. Collaboration with the Museum of Antiquities of the State University of Moldova, Studio "Teleradio-Moldova", the Municipal Puppet Theatre "Guguta" as well as with a number of collectors from Moldova and Romania allowed presenting to the visitors exhibits of great scientific and aesthetic interest. For the first time, the National Museum of Archaeology and History of Moldova organized and offered the visitors an exhibition devoted exclusively to toys. It was intended for a wide audience and was very popular among visitors of all ages.

415-422

Authors: Elena Ploşniţa

Museology is the science of museums. Most experts characterize it as an independent applied scientific discipline, which studies how museums develop and optimize their activities to meet the needs of society. The term "museology" was first mentioned in the work by P.L. Martin "Praxix der Naturgeschichte" published in 1869 in Germany. But the determination of the status of museology as a science was first given by J. G. Th. Von Graesse in the article "Museology as a Science" published in the magazine „Zeitschrift für Museologie und Antiquitätenkunde" in 1883. The author announced a new scientific discipline of museology and tried to highlight its research potential. Thus, museology as a science began in 1883. Since 1960s museology is introduced as a scientific discipline in many universities around the world; there were created first centers of museological research, published numerous papers on museums. However, so far, some experts deny the scientific character of museology considering it "a discipline that coordinates a specialized type of cultural activity". In his article, the author analyzes the path of museology in the process of its development as a scientific discipline, identifies the problems of its classification in the system of sciences, and highlights the contributions of some researchers (P. van Mensch, J. Neustupny, T. Šola, Z. Stransky, R. Florescu, etc.) to the consolidation of its status of an independent science. In conclusion, the author believes that museology is an academic science, but a relatively young and developing.