Indian Journal of Microbiology Research

198-200

Authors: Asha B Patil, Shobha D Nadagir, Shyamala Shettar, Lakshminarayana S A, Syeda Fasiha M

Empiric therapy is designed to target the microbes that are likely to exist.Appropriate choice of empiric therapy,helps limit the antibiotic consumption and decreases morbidity and mortality. Cephalosporins have often been the mainstay of these protocols. In the present study,overall resistance to antibioticswas 48.69%. Resistance to fourth generationcephalosporins ran parallel to that of third generation cephalosporins. Temporary stoppage or limiting the use of cephalosporins is indicated

210-213

Authors: Pavani, Srinivas Rao MS, Samhitha M, Vinayaraj EV, S. Manick Dass, Ratna Rao

Background: Hepatitis B is one of the most prevalent infectious diseases in the world. Health care workers (HCWs) are at high risk of contracting Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. HBV vaccination followed by confirmation of vaccine response aids to reduce the risk of attaining the Hepatitis B infection and decreasing the chances of the spread of the infection from Health care workers into the society. Aim: The aim of the study is to evaluate hepatitis B virus (HBV) immunization status and anti-HBs titre among HCWs. Materials and methods: This is a cross-sectional study conducted at the Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Hyderabad. 200 Health care workers from different sections who were completely vaccinated with HBV vaccine were included in the study. With due consent, blood samples were collected and tested for antibody to Hepatitis B surface antigen by Chemiluminescent Microparticle Immunoassay from May 2014 to June 2014. Titre ≥10 mIU/mL was considered to be seroprotective. Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis of data was done in SPSS version 23 and p-value of <0.01 was considered statistically highly significant. Result: Among 200 HCWs included in the study, 167 (83.5%) were identified as responders to the HBV vaccine and 33 (16.5%) were non-responders. The anti-HBs titres were found to decline with increasing age due to waning immunity. Other risk factors found to be associated with low anti-HBs titres were sex, time since last dose of vaccine and poor life style habits. Conclusion: All HCWs should receive three doses of the vaccine and be monitored for their immune status 6-8 weeks post vaccination and after every five years. Boosters should be administered to those who lack protective level of anti-HBs antibody.

220-226

Authors: M.S.Srinivas Rao, Meghana Shridhar, K.Pavani, Vinayaraj.E.V, S. Manick Dass

Aims and objectives:To Study the prevalence of TB in diabetic patients in a tertiary care hospital in Hyderabad and describe demographic features, socio economic status of diabetic patients who are at risk of developing tuberculosis. Methodology: Patient demographic details were obtained through a questionnaire. The sample size was 100 out of which 96 were enrolled for the study. All the patients with at least 3 TB symptoms were grouped as positive TB symptoms. They were subjected to further investigations (after obtaining their due consent)-random blood sugar and two sputum samples (spot-morning) were collected. Sputum samples were observed for AFB bacilli by Ziehl-Neelson staining using light microscopy. The other patients were grouped as negative TB symptoms. Results:Out of the 100, 4 were excluded. 105 of the patients had positive TB symptoms. 60% of these patients had a random blood glucose level in the range of 171-210mg/dl.Gender, occupation, monthly income was not a major risk factor though age was and the age group at risk was 30-50. Family size and treatment was also a risk for developing TB symptoms. Symptoms were more prevalent in upper middle class. Family history of DM was not a factor for risk of TB. Past history and family history of TB did not affect the risk of developing TB. Conclusion: It was found that the prevalence of TB symptoms was 10.4% among diabetics and prevalence of TB was 10%. TB symptoms were more prevalent with those on oral anti-hyperglycemic drugs.

236-237

Authors: Subha Ganguly, Saraswat Sahoo, Rajesh Wakchaure, ShyamLal Garg, Praveen Kumar Praveen, Parveez Ahmad

The present article reports on the bacteriological examination and antibiotic sensitivity test of the tumorous mass sample collected from the udder of a crossbred cow suffering from clinical mastitis.

244-245

Authors: Subha Ganguly, Arpita Padhy, Saraswat Sahoo, Rajesh Wakchaure, Praveen Kumar Praveen5and ShyamLal Ga

The present article reports on the bacteriological examination and antibiotic sensitivity test of pus sample collected from a cow suffering from hernia.

249-251

Authors: Vijaya D., Vijaya S., Santhya ST., Shakthi.R., Yashaswini. M.K.

Introduction:Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of nail caused by dermatophytes, yeasts or non-dermatophyte moulds. Curvularia species is a dematiaceous fungi .We are reporting a case of Onychomycosis caused by Curvularia, for its rarity. Case report:A 45 year old female, agriculturist by occupation presented with black discolourationofleft thumbnailsince 6 months.KOH preparation of nail clipping showed dark pigmented septate hyphae with 3 to 4 celled conidia with transverse septa. Growth on sabouraud’s dextrose agar yielded Curvularialunata. Same fungi was isolated on repeat culture. The patient was put on pulse therapy with Itraconazole.

138-141

Authors: Misbah Najam, Mallikarjun Koppad, Halesh L. H., Siddesh K. C.

Background: Carbapenems are β-lactam antibiotics, presently considered as the most potent agents for the treatment of multi drug resistant gram negative bacterial infection. Their clinical usage is under threat due to growing incidence of resistance due to production of Carbapenemases which belong to Class B β-lactamases. Knowledge of resistance patterns for Carbapenems will help to guide appropriate and judicious antibiotic use. Hence this study was conducted to detect the resistance to Carbapenems in ESBL producing isolates of E. coli, as the growing incidence of Carbapenem resistance is a major concern to public health. Objectives: 1. Screening and phenotypic confirmation of ESBL production in E. coli isolates. 2. Screening for Carbapenem resistance in ESBL producing E. coli isolates. Materials and Methods: Clinical samples consisting of all exudates, sterile body fluids and urine samples were included in our study. Samples were processed and E. coli identified as per routine laboratory protocol. ESBL screening and phenotypic confirmation, followed by screening for Carbapenem resistance was done as recommended by CLSI guidelines 2014. Results: We isolated 100 ESBL producing E. coli from the samples which were further screened for Carbapenem resistance. Among 100 ESBL producing E. coli isolates, 4(4%) showed Carbapenem resistance, out of which 2 were isloated from urine, 1 each from pus and stool. Co-resistance was observed to other antibiotics including other Cephalosporins(91%), Ampicillin(100%), Piperacillin(95%) and Fluoroquinoles(70%). Conclusion: Our study highlights an increase in resistance pattern in ESBL producing E. coli isolates towards Carbapenems, which is an alarming situation to microbiologists and clinical physicians of our country. Hence, there is a need to emphasize on rational use of antimicrobials and prevent their misuse which is harmful to both patient and community.

148-153

Authors: S. Manick Dass, Vinayaraj E. V., K. Pavavni, Aishwarya Pallam, M. Srinivas Rao

Background and Objective: Onychomycosis is a fungal infection of the finger or toe nail apparatus caused by dermatophytes, non dermatophytemoulds and yeasts (mainly Candida species). Laboratory diagnosis of superficial fungal infection relies on direct microscopic examination of fungal elements in the clinical sample and mycological culture of the particular fungal species concerned. Quality of the sample and experience of the microbiologist are the major factors that determine the successful rate of microscopic examination and culture. All diagnostic laboratories should be able to discriminate between organisms that are likely pathogens and other contamination of the culture plate determine. A direct microscopic examination is the simplest, cheapest method used for the diagnosis of mycotic infections. In this study we want to provide detailed information on diagnosis of onychomycosis and compare the efficacy of common methods employed in microbiology laboratory. This study is valuable in establishing a reliable method for early information on diagnosis of onychomycosis that may be crucial for determining appropriate therapy for the successful treatment of onychomycosis patient. Methodology: This is a cross sectional study conducted at Apollo General Hospital, Hyderabad. A total of 150 patients with clinical features suggestive of fungal infection were selected. All samples were subjected to KOH mount, calcofluor white and fungal culture. Sabourauds dextrose agar with chloramphenicol and cycloheximide were used for the growth of dermatophytes and incubated at 37 0 C for 3 weeks. Two tubes of SDA with chloramphenicol were used for the identification and incubated at 37 and 25 0 C for 3 weeks. Result: Out of the 150 patients, direct microscopy with KOH mount, calcofluor mount and mycological culture showed positive results in 84(56%), 95(63.33%), 59(39.33%) respectively. Mycological culture was the least sensitive method and CFW was the most sensitive method among the 3 methods. Out of the 59 culture positive 27 were positive for Dermatophyte, 27 were non dermatophytic mould and 5 were Candida. Among non dermatophyticmould, Aspergillus was the most common isolate followed by Scopulariopsis. Culture was taken as the gold standard and when KOH mount microscopy was compared to the cul¬ture, sensitivity of KOH microscopy was 83.02% and specificity was 70.1%. When calcofluor white microscopy was compared to the cul¬ture, sensitivity of calcofluor white microscopy was 89.83 % and specificity was 60.44%. Conclusion: In conclusion Calcofluor white is an excellent method to detect fungal agents from clinically suspected onychomycosis cases with high sensitivity and negative predictive value. It can be done in all clinically suspected onychomycosis in any laboratory having adequate technical aids. In resource poor settings, KOH mount serve as an alternative method with comparable sensitivity and negative predictive value.

159-162

Authors: Arun Ghosh, Amit Rana, Surendra Prasad

Background: Chronic otitis media (CSOM) is a notorious infection prevalent mostly in developing countries due to indiscriminate uses of local steroid and antibiotics in the ear either alone or combination. Humidity also plays a major contributing factor in the etiology of otitis media. Objective: To know the prevalence of fungal infection in chronic suppurative otitis media. Method: The study was conducted on 130 cases of recurrent discharging ear at the out patient door of Deptt of E.N.T and Dept. of Microbiology, Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital, Bareilly. Results: Out of 130 cases, 34 were found fungal positive having the prevalence rate 26.15%. The side of involvement was more common in right ear (66.66%) than left. Males are affected more (58.82%) than females. Most of the fungal infections were associated with the use of local steroid and antibiotics (79.41%). Predominent fungal isolates were Aspergillus spp. (32.35%) followed by other saprophytic fungi (52.94%).

172-176

Authors: Chaitali Urewar, Tapas Nandy, Kunal Roychoudhury

The cyanobacterial consortia was grown and developed under laboratory conditions. In the present work we used equal proportion of three cyanobacterial strains i.e. Anabaena sp., Nostoc sp., and Oscillatoria sp. together to form consortia. A specially designed batch photo bioreactor was used for cultivation of consortia. Nutrient medium was modified according to the growth requirement of consortia. Several parameters like wet mount microscopy, dry weight and chlorophyll a content were used to monitor consortia growth.

186-188

Authors: Sudheendra Kulkarni, Chandrakanth Chillarge

Background: For a hospital to discharge its duty properly to safe guarding human life and to decrease in the incidence of nosocomial infections with corresponding increase in the mortality, length of stay and cost, it is necessary for a hospital to have a good CSSD set-up and an efficient working staff with adequate knowledge and practice of sterilization techniques. Moreover, the fatal disease AIDS became so powerful and spread worldwide, the demand for proper procedures for hospital infection control has gained momentum enormously. Diseases such as Hepatitis B & C, known to be transmitted through contaminated surgical instruments, there is a need to adopt stricter guidelines for disinfection and sterilization. Objective: The purpose of this study was to know the knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding sterilization among health-care staff working in Central sterile supply department (CSSD) of Bidar Institute of Medical Sciences (BRIMS) Teaching hospital, Bidar, Karnataka. Methods: The study is a descriptive, observational and hospital based which was carried out in BRIMS Teaching hospital Bidar. The tools include observation check list and questionnaire. Data was analyzed by SPSS 20.0. Conclusion: We conclude that our hospital CSSD staff are having adequate knowledge and positive attitude and are highly practicing sterilization methods. We recommend every hospital to conduct such studies to assess the knowledge of their staff regarding sterilization and disinfection techniques on regular basis to prevent the nosocomial infections.

83-88

Authors: Tina Chaturvedi, Amit Bhattacharya

Background: Several diseases are caused by microbes present in the environment. The respiratory tract is the most common site for infection by pathogens. In this study Aspergillus species were isolated from clinical specimen which is the most prevalent fungi causing Aspergillosis in immuno compromised patients. Drug susceptibility test against the isolated fungi was determined. Method: The specimens were collected and cultured on Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA) slants for the isolation of fungi. Antifungal drug susceptibility test was performed using E-test strip on RPMI-1640 media plates. Results: Out of 280 patients 7 patients were found infected with Aspergillus species. Voriconazole was observed to have least MIC value as compared to other drugs. Conclusion: The study reveals that the inhalation of spores of Aspergillus can cause health risk and pulmonary infection (Aspergillosis). This infection usually occurs in those individuals who have weakened immune system. Our study has showed that Voriconazole is a better treatment against Aspergillus infections.

95-105

Authors: V.Y. Shukla, H. G. Pansuriya

Background: Wastewater from various industrial plants such as paper and pulp mills, pigment and textiles can contain various substances that tend to increase chemical oxygen demand (COD) of wastewater. Various agencies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have placed limits on allowable levels of COD in industrial wastewater effluents. It is desirable to develop a process suitable for treating wastewater to meet the regulatory limits. Objective: The present study was attempted to solve the problem of high COD values as well as concerned heavy metals like Cu+2 and Cr+6 in industrial wastewater using native bacteria. Methods: The organic matter that contributed to high COD in wastewater was degraded by native bacterial consortium under aerobic conditions using batch process. Flask treatment experiment was carried out to optimize inoculum size, temperature, pH and HRT using consortium for effective COD, Cu+2 and Cr+6 removals. Lab scale reactor study was carried out in which bacteria were allowed to attach to a supporting matrix to prevent slough off during treatment. Results: Under the experimental conditions, the reduction efficiencies of COD, Cu+2 and Cr+6 were found to be as high as 57%, 97% and 93% respectively with 72h HRT in fixed film bioreactor. Conclusion: Use of native biological population for the treatment of industrial wastewater is a permissible and cost effective technique.

111-114

Authors: Gayatri Patel

Background: Enzymes are the most important substances used in so many areas either in research, medicine or commonly in industries. Starch degrading bacteria are mostly important in food, texture, fermentation and paper industries. Amylase production from bacteria is economical because the enzyme production rate is higher in bacteria as compared to other microorganism. The isolation and manipulation of pure culture of starch degrading microorganisms from soil have a great importance on biotechnology as well as microbiology field. Methods: Present study involves the isolation by dilution method, characterization and identification by bergey’s menual of systematic bacteriology. Enzyme assays by DNS a method. Optimization of enzymes at different parameters. Results: In this research the bacterial four strains A1, A2, A3 and A4 were isolated from soil at area of college campus Ganpat University, Gujarat, India. Isolated bacteria have great amylase activity at 37˚Ctemperature, the highest hydrolysis zone of starch using with concentration of 1.5% amylase activity at different pH in highest growth of bacteria at pH 6.7 and amylase activity at different time duration at 48hrs with high activity 23.5U/ml in isolate A4 by DNS a method. Conclusions: In the presence study, the bacteria were isolated from the garden soil from the college campus. This area also consisting of starchy materials we found starch degrading bacteria have capacity to grow in physical condition pH, temperature and concentration of starch. As per morphological character, colony character and biochemical testing isolated bacteria similar to genus bacillus.

120-125

Authors: Sarika Kombade, Gopal N. Agrawal

Background and objectives: Nonfermenting gram-negative bacilli (NFGNB) are ubiquitous in the nature. They are considered as environmental contaminants and most of them have emerged as important nosocomial pathogens. So this study was undertaken to identify the various NFGNB with its antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of specimens from patients admitted to Intensive care unit (ICU) in our hospital Methods: Total 107 NFGNB were identified during the study period of September 2009-October 2011. All isolates were identified using a standard conventional method like motility, oxidase production; oxidation-fermentation test etc. and failing to acidify butt in triple sugar iron medium. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed with the help of the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method and MBL detection done by DDST and Modified Hodge test. Result: P. aeruginosa (16%) was the commonest isolate obtained followed by A. baumannii (13.5%). NFGNB were maximum susceptible to imipenem (80.4%), piperacillin tazobactum (71.9%) and amikacin(52.3%). P.aeruginosa and A. baumannii were 90% and 60.6% sensitive imipenem and 85% and 54.5% to piperacilli-tazobactum. 19.6% MBL producers were obtained in all nonfermenters. Maximum MBL production was obtained in Acinetobacter spp. (39.4%) followed by S. maltophilia (20%) and P. aeruginosa (10.0%) Interpretation & conclusion: Multidrug resistance infection in ICU is emerging; we also obtained 19.6% MBL producers in all NFGNB. Local antibiotic policy should be generated to prevent the emerging MDR in NFGNB.

128-132

Authors: Ranjana Hawaldar, Sadhna Sodani

Bacteremia due to Stenotrophomonas maltophilia – a series of three cases. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an aerobic ubiquitous gram-negative bacillus that has been isolated from humans, animals, soil, food, and pharmaceuticals. Because of its limited invasiveness and low level of pathogenicity, it is rarely responsible for community-acquired serious infections. In recent years, S. maltophilia has been increasingly reported as a cause of life-threatening infections, in particular in immune compromised patients. Antimicrobial pressure, indwelling venous catheterization, long-term hospitalization, aggressive. Cytoreductive treatments for malignancy and neutropenia seem to be contributory factors. Management is problematic because of resistance to commonly used antibiotics including those of carbapenem class. In vitro susceptibility testing specific guidelines are not available for management. The development of rapid, inexpensive and reproducible culture systems such as Vitek II has made possible the recognition of this as a cause of bacteremia. In particular more information on nosocomial reservoirs and routes of transmission of the bacterium is needed for effective infection control strategies. Here we report a series of three cases of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia bacteremia from patients admitted in a paediatric ICU.

7-13

Authors: G. S Kocher, Nishu Joshi

Background: The present study was carried out to use potato peel which is available in plenty from food processing industries as a substrate for alkaline protease production using B. circulans MTCC 7906. Method: The potential of potato peel as substrate for alkaline protease has been studied for its production and purification was studied by Bacillus circulansMTCC 7906. In order to make the process economically viable the casein was replaced by Potato peel. The results were analyzed using factorial CRD. Results: Alkaline protease activity was increased by2.74fold and was obtained in 96 h of fermentation. Ammonium sulphate precipitation followed dialysis of the fraction 60-90% saturation with maximum specific activity was partially purified using DEAE column chromatography. Purification profile was studied and the fraction with highest specific and enzyme activity were pooled to achieve specific activity of 18.761 U/mg with 6.185 fold purification. The concentration of enzyme was done using PEG had the specific activity of 69.332 U/mg and 22.859 fold purification. Conclusion: The concentrated partially purified enzyme was subjected to SDS PAGE followed by silver staining for both the substrates casein and potato peel showed the protein band for alkaline protease at 40 kDa revealing the purity of the enzyme. Experiments revealed successful utilization of potato peel as an economical substrate for enhanced production of alkaline protease by B. circulans MTCC 7906. Projects which are inclined to reduce global wastage should be encouraged and this is one of the same type.

20-26

Authors: Sandip Bandopadhyay

Purpose: Purpose of the present study is to check the potency of the strains Bacillus thuringiensis A5-BRSC and Bacillus megaterium ATCC 9885 for promoting growth of different plants without hazardous chemical fertilizers. Methods: Four non-leguminous seasonal plants like Amaranthus; Ocimum, Abelmoschus and Capsicum are used to study combined growth promoting effects of two bacteria viz. Bacillus thuringiensis A5-BRSC and Bacillus megaterium ATCC 9885 under pot condition. Different morphological parameters like shoot height, leaf area, fresh weight and dry weights of the plants; as well as biochemical parameters like leaf chlorophyll content, catalase and peroxidae enzyme activities of both culture treated and untreated plants were investigated. Results: All the biofertilizer treated plants showed remarkably higher results in all parameters, except chlorophyll content, than control plants. Conclusion: The strains proved as potential strains for plant growth promotion in pot study and hence may be used as biofertizer under field condition for sustainable agriculture.

30-39

Authors: Animesh Samanta, Shrabani Pradhan, Arpita Mandal, Arpita Patra, Suchismita Roy, Shreya Mandal,

Background: Curd is an important fermented food which is generally consumed by the community people in large scale and becomes a functional upon incorporating probiotics-live microorganisms due to a great variety of positive health effects. Methods: In this study, pure cultures of Lactobacillus casei (MTCC1408), L fermentum (MTCC 903), L rhamnosus (MTCC1462), L ingluviei ADK10 (GenBank Accession No-JQ395039), Enterococcus faecium ADK18 (KF032592.1), E durans ADK14 (KF032593.1) and Streptococcus thermophillus (MTCC 1938) were inoculated to pasteurized Amul Milk separately to produce curd. Different physiochemical and antimicrobial characteristic of curd against some pathogen were analyzed to assay the quality of curd. Results: The results of the study revealed that the moisture content of the curd samples ranged between 86.36%- 88.71% and the pH values of the samples ranged between 3.96-5.43, which were reasonably suitable for curd processing industries in tropical countries. Titratable acidity (0.81-1.71), protein (range 1.4g-9.6g) and fat (2.2g-6.8 g) content also varied with respect to different lactic acid bacterial strains. All seven lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains showed their antagonistic activity (zone of inhibition 5-10 mm) against four enteropathogenic bacterial strains (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Klebsiella pneumonia ATCC 15380, Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633). L ingluviei ADK10 and L. rhamnosus strains showed wide inhibitory spectrum against all the tested strains. Conclusions: It can be conclude that the physiochemical parameters were varies according to their starter culture with antimicrobial activity against some entero-pathogens and has been fruitful starter culture for the preparation of curd having better health promoting effects.

46-49

Authors: Madhurendra Singh Rajput, Pradeep Kumar, Ramesh Chandra thanna

Background: Psudomonas aeruginosa is a major cause of nosocomial infections. Despite advances in sanitation facilities and the introduction of wide variety of antimicrobial agents with antipseudomonal activities, life threatening infections caused by this agent continue to cause devastations in the hospitals. Aims & objective: To study the Resistance Pattern of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Isolates From surgical wounds. Material & Method: This study was a retrospective study done in Department of Microbiology, Index Medical College hospital and research center, Indore, m.p, india from March 2014 to december 2014. A total of 300 isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa both from indoor patients and patients attending outpatient department who were having surgical wound infections, were included in the study. Each isolate was evaluated for susceptibility to nine different antibiotics i.e cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefdinir, amikacin, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, piperacillin and imipenem. ESBL production was detected by double disc potentiation method by applying disc of cefoperazone [75μ] and combination of cefoperazone-sulbactam [75/30μ]. The results were interpreted according to Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) guidelines. Result: Maximum resistance was seen to third generation cephalosporins-68.5 % to cefotaxime, 80.23% to ceftriaxone, 75.5% to ceftazidime, 93% to cefdinir. Amikacin showed resistance in 42.5% and Gentamicin in 81% of the isolates. Ciprofloxacin resistance was seen in 72.5% isolates while piperacillin resistance was seen in 43% of the isolates. Minimum resistance was seen to imipenem -2.5% Conclusion: The present study highlights that the Pseudomonas aeruginosa remains an important cause of nosocomial wound infections. Is study thus gives the alarming signal for the future, making the therapeutic options more difficult. Strict infection control measures are to be followed to contain the so called water and soil organism as Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

55-59

Authors: Varjani Sunita Patel Kinjal

Methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) with a global warming potential (GWP) ~23 times higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced by Landfills. There is urgent need to prevent methane emissions from large landfills. Methanotrophs are a group of bacteria that consume methane. In cover soil methanotrophs prevent fugitive methane emissions. In present scenario two general research techniques are performed to prevent methane emissions. First, a dimensionless number method developed based on Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Second, effects of nutrient amendments on methane oxidation and nitrous oxide production were examined by constructing soil microcosms using landfill cover soils. Mehanotrophic activity and community structure can be differentially affected by both landfill gas composition and amendments thus provides insights for best manipulation of methanotrophic processes to better mitigation of GHG emission.

64-71

Authors: Annu Goel, Priyanka Batra, Leela Wati

Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a rare severe disease, often fatal, caused by the Ebola virus. It is transmitted through direct contact with blood or other bodily fluids (e.g. saliva, urine) from infected people, dead or alive. This includes unprotected sexual contact with patients up to seven weeks after they have recovered. Ebola virus does not transmit through the air as influenza does. After two days and up to 21 days following exposure to the virus, disease may start suddenly with fever, muscle aches, weakness, headache and sore throat. The next stage of disease is characterised by vomiting, diarrhoea, rash and failure of the liver and kidneys. Some patients also have heavy internal and external bleeding and multi-organ failure. There is no specific vaccine or treatment for the disease, but World Health Organization and other regulatory partners are currently working to identify potential viable treatments. Key Words: Virus, Ebola, Diagnosis, Therapy